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Seven Outstanding Women from the Ancient and Medieval World

Hello History-Lovers!

This week on the blog we’ve got a special post about some amazing women from ancient and medieval history.

As has often been the case in history books and classes, the focus of historical personages has been male-oriented. Men declared most wars, made political decisions, ruled, and basically determined the future for numerous societies, kingdoms and empires.

While there have been some amazing men in history, there have also been many incredible women who have displayed great strength, resilience, and courage on the world scene, women who have set a shining example and challenged the status quo.

Over my years of study, I can’t remember how many times I’ve come across a woman from history who blew my mind with their daring, but whose life was rarely explored in-depth in any of my courses or the books I read. With hope, curricula in high school and beyond have changed to more properly reflect the role of women in history.

There are far too many outstanding women in history for me to list them here, but with this post I wanted to introduce you to a small group of women who have left a great impression upon me, personally, during my years of study, research and writing. The biographies below will be brief, but I hope they encourage you to read more.

Kyniska of Sparta

396 B.C.

Those of you who have read Heart of Fire will be familiar with Kyniska of Sparta, one of the main protagonists of the story. The very first time I read about this Spartan princess, I knew immediately that I had to write a story around her achievements.

Kyniska of Sparta was the daughter of King Archidamus II (476-427 B.C.), the Eurypontid King of Sparta. She was also the half-sister of King Agis, and sister to King Agesilaus II (444-360 B.C.) who waged war on both the Persians and his fellow Greeks.

It is believed that Kyniska was born sometime around 440 B.C. in Sparta and, unlike other Greek women beyond Sparta, she grew up training herself physically and mentally, as was expected of strong, Spartan women.

What makes her so special?

Well, in addition to winning in the foot race at the Heraian Games that took place at Olympia, she was also the first woman in history to win at the Olympic Games when she entered her team in the four horse chariot event. And not only did she win, she did it at two Olympiads in 396 B.C. and 392 B.C.!

When I first wrote about Kyniska, some people, including women, told me that her achievements didn’t mean much since she did not drive the chariot herself. However, my answer to that is that that is a modern perspective only. We have to keep in mind that in the world Kyniska inhabited, women were considered to be very little, other than chattel. They had no say, no involvement in affairs of war or state, and certainly no place in the Olympic Games, not even being permitted within the sacred sanctuary of the Altis, unless they were a priestess.

For someone like Kyniska to raise and train her horses – which she did – and then to enter the Olympics to compete against the richest and most powerful men of the city-states of the Greek world took no little amount of courage.

Inscribed base for the victory statue commemorating Kyniska’s victory at the Olympic Games. It is now located in a small room at the Museum of the Olympic Games in ancient Olympia, Greece. It was amazing to see this piece of stone that represented such an earth-shattering change in Olympic history!

Kyniska’s actions show that she was a strong, willful and outspoken woman in the highly misogynistic world of ancient Greece, and of Sparta.

She also opened the doors to other women to compete in the Olympic Games, includingEuryleonis, in 368 B.C., who also makes an appearance in the story of Heart of Fire. Women from other city-states, including Belistiche, Zeuxo, Encrateia, Hermione, Timareta, Theodota of Elis, and Cassia, also eventually competed and won.

For me, Kyniska is a hero of ancient history!

If you would like to read more about Kyniska of Sparta, you can CLICK HERE for the full blog post on her. You can also read about her in Heart of Fire: A Novel of the Ancient Olympics which features her achievement at the Olympiad of 396 B.C.

 

Olympias

375 – 316 B.C.

One name that conjures images of motherly pride, female strength, and perhaps illustrates the words ‘hell a fury like a woman scorned’ better than any other is that of Olympias, the wife of King Philip II of Macedon, and the mother of none other than Alexander III (the Great).

One thing that many great women in history seem to have in common is that they have been demonized by history, and male historians, to an extent. Olympias is certainly no exception.

As the daughter of Neoptolemus I of Epirus, King of the Molossians, Olympias was descended (and she fervently believed it!) from the Greek hero, Achilles.

She was a strong, passionate and imperious woman in the male-dominated world of ancient Greece. She was also a dedicated worshipper of Dionysus, there being many tales of her ecstatic, mad dances in honour of the god.

In 357 B.C., she married Philip of Macedon and quickly proved to be no typical wife of ancient Greece. She was not one to be locked away, or to remain silent. She and Philip were often at odds, and when he took another wife, she returned to her home in Epirus. Philip was murdered of course, and some say that she had a hand in that so as to secure the position of her son, Alexander, upon the throne.

It was also said that Olympias also murdered that wife of Philip’s, as well as the son she more.

One thing is for sure – you would not want to get in the way of this Greek mother and her son.

An ecstatic Maenad, a worshiper of Dionysus

While Alexander was conquering lands all the way to India, Olympias fought to protect his back, and was often at odds with Alexander’s regent, Antipater, whom Olympias did not trust to look out for Alexander’s interests.

Not welcome in Macedon during Alexander’s absence, Olympias returned once more to Epirus to rule alongside her daughter, Cleopatra.

It would be difficult to call Olympias an expert at diplomacy, though she was a shrewd politician and seems to have had a knack for knowing who could or could not be trusted with her son’s interests.

Olympias was more of a force of nature, and after Alexander’s death, she returned to Macedon in 319 B.C. to support Polyperchon against Cassander, Antipater’s son, and one of Alexander’s generals.

Despite her grief over the death of her beloved son – a son some believed was actually the son of Zeus – her goal was to secure the inheritance of her grandson, Alexander IV. Olympias gave Roxana, Alexander’s wife, and her son her protection, and promptly went to war against Cassander. She won many battles in this war, a war she fought on behalf of her family.

But she was, apparently, too brutal.

When Cassander captured her at Pydna, she was put to death by the families of her victims over the years.

Here, it is important to note that Cassander’s soldiers refused to hurt her. They would not be the executioners of Alexander’s mother.

Whatever you might think of Olympias, there is no doubt that she was the ultimate woman of strength and determination, a woman who could well have lived up to her shared blood with Achilles himself.

If you are looking for a relatively accurate portrayal of Olympias, you might want to check out Oliver Stone’s epic film, Alexander, in which she is portrayed by Angelina Jolie. The historical advisor on the film was Robin Lane Fox, one of the definitive biographers of Alexander the Great. You can find Fox’s book HERE.

If you’re looking for novels, Valerio Massimo Manfredi’s Alexander Trilogy is a great read.

 

Cleopatra VII Philopator

69 – 30 B.C.

The name of Cleopatra needs no introduction. She is perhaps the most famous (and final) queen of ancient Egypt, portrayed in art, literature, and modern media countless times.

However, many portrayals of this last ruler of the Ptolemaic dynasty have been extremely unfair and, frankly, insulting. One example is the HBO series Rome. As much as I loved that show, the portrayal of Cleopatra as a sort of nymphomaniac junkie could not have been further from the truth.

If that is the case, who was the real Cleopatra, other than a descendent of Alexander the Great’s general, Ptolemy, and a lover of Julius Caesar and Marcus Antonius?

She was royalty, and she was a survivor. She was also well-educated, a cunning diplomat, and a skilled naval commander. She was also highly intelligent, being fluent in several languages – she was the only Ptolemaic pharaoh fully fluent in the Egyptian language of her people!

Cleopatra was a brighter star than most of the rulers of her family dynasty. She was a champion of her people, and she sought to secure their future by any means necessary, going so far as to become the mistress of another rising star on the world stage, Julius Caesar, whom she bore a son named Caesarion.

When she and her son arrived in Rome in 46 B.C. their entrance became legend, but she was only to remain there until 44 B.C. when Caesar was murdered. After that, her son, and Egypt, were at the forefront of her thoughts, and she set about securing her position and that of her son by any means, including poisoning her younger brother.

Antony and Cleopatra

Cleopatra finds herself in legend again with the subsequent romance between her and Marcus Antonius, and this affair has been written of, painted, and poeticized again and again. Sometimes the telling is quite romantic, but it is foolish to believe that the great women of history were only as great as their affairs, I think.

She became a mother yet again, this time giving Antonius three children – Alexander Helios, Cleopatra Selene, and Ptolemy Philadelphus. Though the accounts speak of love between Antonius and her, Cleopatra, during this time, negotiated the return of Egypts lost lands, and then obtained new lands, from Rome.

In the West, however, Cleopatra’s influence on Antonius and her imperial ambitions caused Octavian to begin a smear campaign against her that, to this day, taints our perception of her.

Things came to a head at the battle of Actium, in which Octavian’s forces defeated those of Cleopatra. The end was near. It should be said here that there is no evidence that she fled the battle when it appeared lost. That was perhaps another fabrication of Octavian’s propaganda machine.

When they returned to Egypt after the battle, Antonius, like a good Roman, committed suicide.

Seeing Octavian closing in, and refusing to be an ornament in his triumph in Rome, Cleopatra, the last ruler of the Ptolemaic dynasty, committed suicide by snake bite on August 10th, 30 B.C. Her children by Antonius were spared and raised by his Roman wife, Octavia, but her son, Caesarion, was murdered.

Thus ended the Hellenistic Age that had begun with Alexander the Great.

Cleopatra and her son, Caesarion

Some people love Cleopatra, others hate her. But there is no denying that she was a passionate woman of extremes. She certainly owned her role as Egypt’s queen, and fought hard for herself, her people, her kingdom, and for those whom she loved.

In reaching so high, she was perhaps burned by the sun, but it is indeed hard to imagine anyone else capable of so much!

If you would like to read more about Cleopatra, you should definitely check out the biography, Cleopatra, by Michael Grant.

And as far as films, I still love the epic classic Cleopatra with Elizabeth Taylor.

 

Livia Drusilla

58 B.C. – A.D. 29

If were are talking about the strong women behind the men who ruled the world, we would be remiss if we did not include Livia Drusilla, later Livia Augusta, first empress of the Roman Empire.

Many of you might know of Livia from the BBC drama, I Claudius. She was not only a great power behind the imperial throne, and not a woman to be trifled with, she was also the matriarch of one of the most famous dynasties of ancient Rome.

I’ve always been curious about Livia and her world, amazed by the power she seemed to have wielded over the rulers of Rome. She was the wife of Emperor Augustus for fifty-two years, and as such she helped to build a new, Roman world.

She was also the mother of Emperor Tiberius, the grandmother of Emperor Claudius who deified her, the great-grandmother of Emperor Gaius (the infamous Caligula), and the great-great-grandmother of Emperor Nero.

If there is a supreme example of the Roman mater familias, Livia is it.

She met Octavian (future Augustus) in 38 B.C. and married him. By all accounts, she captured his heart, but she also gave him a great deal of strength.

Morals and traditions were important to the Romans, and Livia excelled at these, being a dutiful wife and mother in the eyes of the Roman people.

But she also helped Augustus with his dynastic plans. An Empire cannot be born without crises, and Livia helped her husband to weather them all.

She played a more prominent role in state and family affairs than any Roman woman before her.

Livia was extremely intelligent and perceptive, and she was Augustus’ most loyal, trusted advisor. In fact, it’s even possible that his reign would not have lasted so long without her. Together, they spearheaded what was thought to be a return to true Roman morality.

The ‘Grand Cameo of France’ artifact showing the Julio-Claudian Family, including Livia beside her enthroned son, Tiberius

However, there were rumours of her plotting to secure her son Tiberius’ accession to the throne by murdering several of Augustus’ possible heirs. Odd that once Tiberius came to the throne, the two were estranged.

Caligula, who lived with her for a time, is said to have called her a cunning intriguer, ‘Odysseus in a dress’!

To have survived for so long in the world of ancient Rome and all the dynastic family struggles that entailed, and to have been at the forefront of the creation of one of the world’s greatest empires, I think it can truly be said that Livia Drusilla was an exceptional woman deserving of her deification.

She also cleared the way for other strong women of Rome who followed in her footsteps.

For a wonderful portrayal of Livia in film, you should definitely watch the BBC mini series of I, Claudius, in which this titan of ancient Rome is expertly played by Sian Philips.

The Robert Graves book of I, Claudius, which the television series is based on, is a wonderful read too, and though it perhaps takes some poetic exaggeration, it is a fantastic book.

 

Boudicca – Queen of the Iceni

A.D. 60

When I think of strong women from the ancient world, Boudicca is at the forefront of my mind. I can see her now, tall, standing on her war chariot, her red hair blowing in the wind, and vengeance in her eyes.

Her acts are inspiring and heroic, and her story one of tragedy.

Boudicca was the wife of King Prasutagus of the Iceni nation of Celts, who ruled the area of modern day Norfolk. Prasutagus was a client king of Rome at the time, but upon his death, he left half of his possessions to Emperor Nero.

It did not take long for the Roman officials to descend on the Iceni to seize everything. More than that, they flogged Boudicca publicly and raped her two daughters.

Boudicca’s story is one of horror and war, and to me, her name is synonymous with rage and swift vengeance.

After these grievous attacks upon herself, her daughters, and her people, Boudicca rallied the Iceni nation, as well as the neighbouring Trinovantes (in modern Essex and Suffolk), and moved against the Romans.

With an army of one hundred-thousand, Boudicca sacked the cities of Camulodunum (Colchester), Londinium (London), and Verulamium (St. Albans), the most important towns in southern Britannia. Her forces killed seventy to eighty thousand Romans and Britons living in those towns, and they went on to trounce forces from the IX Hispana Legion.

But her time of glory and vengeance was fleeting.

The governor of Britannia, Suetonius Paulinus, who had been suppressing the Druid rebellion on the Isle of Anglesey, rushed into the fray to meet Boudicca in battle. His legions included the XIV Gemina, XX Valeria Victrix, and the II Augusta.

Artist impression of Boudicca and her daughters rallying the troops from her war chariot

Boudicca must have known that they could not win against three legions, but rather than submit to Rome, she and her army met them head-on in the Battle of Watling Street. Despite the Romans being outnumbered, the legions’ discipline and Suetonius’ generalship won the day, and the Queen of the Iceni died by poison before being taken.

The Boudiccan rebellion was over, but like the Spartacan revolt during the Roman Republic, it left a mark on the Roman psyche, and the battle cry of the Iceni queen would reverberate for generations to come.

Boudicca, for me, is the epitome of the Celtic warrior queen. She stood up to the might of Rome, and became an important cultural symbol for the United Kingdom in later centuries.

What we know of her comes only from the writings of the Roman conquerors, but her deeds speak for themselves!

If you are interested in reading a great series of novels about the Boudiccan rebellion, I recommend Manda Scott’s wonderful Boudicca series, beginning with the first book, Dreaming the Eagle.

 

Julia Domna

A.D. 160 – 217

Julia Domna, Empress of the Roman Empire and wife of Septimius Severus, may not be on your own list of outstanding women of history, but she is someone I have developed a deep respect for over the years.

Those of you who are familiar with the Eagles and Dragons series will know that Julia Domna plays a prominent role in the novels. Having researched and written about her for so long, I feel like I have developed a grasp of her role as empress at a time when the Roman Empire was at its greatest extent.

She appears as one of the strongest women in Rome’s history, an equal partner in power with her husband who heeded her advice but also respected her.

Julia Domna was the first of the so-called ‘Syrian women’, she and her sisters hailing from Antioch where their father had been the respected high priest of Baal at Emesa (Homs in modern Syria).

Julia Domna was also highly intelligent, known as a philosopher, and had a group of leading scholars and rhetoricians about her. They came from around the Empire to be a part of her circle or salon, to win commissions from her. Her strength also bought her a great many enemies, including the Praetorian Prefect and kinsman to Severus, Gaius Fulvius Plautianus. The conflict between the Empress and the Prefect of the Guard is something that is explored a good deal in Children of Apollo and Killing the Hydra.

Imperial Family – The Severans

Not only did Julia Domna carry on the tradition of the strong, involved Roman empress that was begun by Livia Drusilla, she did so perhaps with an openness that gained her some loyal followers. Despite the fact that she was not Roman, she had earned a great deal of respect across the Empire.

Sadly, her sons Caracalla and Geta proved to be lesser mortals than their mother, but she helped to ensure that the Severan dynasty weathered the threats from outside, and in, for a time, paving the way for her sister Julia Maesa, and her neice, Julia Mamaea, both of whom followed in her footsteps as strong, ruling women.

If you would like to read more about Julia Domna and the Severans, be sure to read the blog post by CLICKING HERE. In addition to the Eagles and Dragons series, I highly recommend Michael Grant’s excellent book The Severans: The Changed Roman Empire.

 

Eleanor of Aquitaine

A.D. 1124 – 1204

For the last person on our list of incredible, kick-ass women of history, we head into the Middle Ages to meet my favourite person of the medieval period, Eleanor of Aquitaine.

It is an impossible task to summarize the life of this incredible woman in a few short paragraphs. Her life was long, and full, the stuff of legend really. She was a wife of kings, and a mother to kings, but she was also much more than that.

Eleanor hailed from the southwest of what is today, France, in the extremely rich and fertile region known as the Aquitaine. She was a passionate and high-spirited woman, so much so that her nature was not to the taste of the reserved northerners. Despite this, however, she was married to King Louis VII of France from 1137-1152, during which time she gave him two daughters as Queen Consort of France.

Eleanor was a sort of rebel in language, behaviour, and fashion at the time, and was even criticised by the church and her royal in-laws for it. But her reserved husband was smitten by her liveliness and beauty, and so she did as she chose. She was even scolded by Bernard of Clairvaux for her constant interference in matters of state, a scolding she did not take to heart, it seemed.

In 1145, when King Louis set off on the Second Crusade as a penance for a massacre at Vitry, in France, Eleanor proved that she was not one to sit idly by at home while he went to war. No sidelines for her!

Along with her ladies in waiting, and three hundred soldiers from Aquitaine – which she ensured remained independent of France – Eleanor took up the cross herself and went East with her husband. And, as legend has it, she and her ladies dressed as Amazon warriors to ride to battle, earning her the title of the next Penthesilea, Queen of the Amazons when they arrived in Constantinople, the great city of the eastern Empire.

But the Holy Land was not what she had thought, and though she wished to stay with her uncle, the indomitable crusader, Raymond de Toulouse, in Antioch, Louis dragged her to Jerusalem after rumours of her relationship with her uncle emerged. As a result, she and Louis became more and more estranged, so much so that she went to the Pope himself to ask that the marriage be dissolved. When she gave birth to yet another daughter – by Louis, she had Marie and Alix – Louis finally agreed, and Eleanor was free of the marriage, though she ensured that she kept the Aquitaine.

Eleanor of Aquitaine’s seal

All of a sudden, Eleanor was the most sought-after bride in all of Europe. It was at this point that men such as the Count of Blois and the Count of Nantes tried to kidnap her and take her for themselves. But Eleanor would have none of it and so, she made a strategic move of her own. She headed for Poitiers where she contacted the Duke of Normandy (future Henry II of England) and asked him to marry her!

And so, in 1152, Henry and Eleanor were married, and in 1154 they became king and queen of England.

Henry was by all accounts a willful and powerful man, and in Eleanor, he had met his match. Their marriage was tumultuous to say the least. Henry had numerous affairs but she took it all in stride. She was tough, and throughout their marriage she held onto the Aquitaine, the people of which refused Henry’s overlordship and acknowledged only Eleanor’s authority.

Eleanor of Aquitaine was a great woman, perhaps married to lesser men, at least in Louis anyway, but she also gave birth to two sons who would end up being some of the most famous kings of England – Richard the Lionheart, and King John.

She fought hard for her sons, even waging war against Henry himself on their behalf. She was always at work on affairs of state for them, on the front lines of diplomacy, or strategizing in the background. Even at the age of seventy-seven, Eleanor was travelling and negotiating on behalf of her son, King John!

Tomb of Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine, Fontevraud Abbey, France

In the end, however, it seemed her sons were lesser people than her.

To me, Eleanor of Aquitaine’s influence and deeds do not revolve around her husbands and sons, but more importantly around the cultural revolution she influenced and nurtured in Poitier.

At her Court of Love, from about 1168-1173, while far away from Henry II, Eleanor and her daughter, Marie de Champagne, encouraged and patronized the troubadours of France. Poets and artists flocked to her court, and out of that were born the ideals of chivalry, courtly love, and tales of Arthurian Romance that we are familiar with today.

Eleanor of Aquitaine, like many other strong women of history, was slandered and demonized by others the whole of her life, but she carried on as she believed. She was a strong, passionate, daring and revolutionary woman, and she should be lauded for that.

She stood up to the world of men, especially those she believed not her equals. Her people loved her, and she was one of the founders of a cultural revolution that was a bright light in darker times. If there was a medieval feminist warrior, I think it might just be her.

She is definitely one of my favourite women of history!

If you want to read more about Eleanor of Aquitaine, I highly recommend the book by Amy Kelly, Eleanor of Aquitaine and the Four Kings. You won’t regret it.

Also, to read more about Arthurian Romance and Eleanor’s Courts of Love, you may want to check out Arthurian Romance and the Knightly Ideal.

If movies are more your thing, you should definitely watch The Lion in Winter which has an all-star cast, including Katherine Hepburn as Eleanor of Aquitaine.

I hope you have enjoyed this post on my own favourite women from ancient and medieval history.

I know that this has been my perspective as a man, but in all of my years of study, this group has left a lasting impression on me. There are so many more, I know. Hypatia of Alexandria certainly springs to mind…or Nefertiti… Joan of Arc, etc. etc… So many.

I suppose the point is that we need to look at all examples of human achievement in history that inspire us to excel in our chosen lives.

This was just a small sample.

Now, tell us, which women of history would you put on your list?

Let us know in the comments below.

Thank you for reading.

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Roman Ghosts – Pliny and the Spectral Haircut

Hello History-Lovers!

It’s been a while since the last post in the Roman Ghosts blog series. Something I was working on recently (a secret to be unleashed this autumn!) made me think of hauntings, and so, here we are.

I’ve also waited because, of all the tips we’ve received about Roman ghost sightings, there were none that took place outside of the UK. The Roman Empire was, of course, vast, and so I found it difficult to believe that there were no accounts outside of Britannia.

So, I did some digging and found one story which I will share with you today.

Statue of Pliny the Younger on the Duomo of Como – Giovanni Rodari, 1480 (Wikimedia Commons)

I am extremely desirous therefore to know whether you believe in the existence of ghosts, and that they have a real form, and are sorts of divinities, or only the visionary impressions of a terrified imagination. (Pliny the Younger, LXXXIII. To Sura)

As it happens, this particular story is not of modern sightings of a ghost, but rather is an ancient ghost story relayed by none other than Pliny the Younger in a letter to Senator Lucius Licinius Sura, from Hispania.

It seems that Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, known to us as Pliny the Younger (c. A.D. 61 – 113), had ghosts on his mind.

Mosaic of Gorgon head, symbol of horror and dread, from Sousse Tunisia

Being an educated and inquisitive person like his uncle, Pliny the Elder, he wrote to his friend Sura to see what he thought about ghosts.

Now, we don’t really know why Pliny the Younger had ghosts on his mind, apart from the tales he relays as examples in his letter to Sura.

There are three tales, or examples, of ghost sightings that Pliny relays in his letter. The first is of an apparition that warned the senator, Curtius Rufus, of his rise to power, and also of his death in Africa.

The second story Pliny writes to Sura about is of the Greek philosopher, Athenodorus, who wanted to rent an apartment in Athens but wondered why it was so inexpensive. Apparently, the ghost of an old man kept harassing the occupants of the flat, and so, like an ancient world Ghostbuster, Athenodorus spent the night there to see what happened. The ghost appeared while Athenodorus was working, and insisted that the philosopher follow it to a spot nearby. The next day, Athenodorus asked that a hole be dug there and, sure enough, a putrefied body lay chained within. The remains were reburied with the proper rituals, and the ghost was not seen again.

Print of Athenodorus confronting the ghost in the story told by Pliny to Sura

These first two stories in Pliny’s letter are fascinating, but it is the third story that interests me, because it comes perhaps to the crux of the matter for Pliny – an experience beneath his own roof! Here it is in his words:

I have a freedman named Marcus, who is by no means illiterate. One night, as he and his younger brother were lying together, he fancied he saw somebody upon his bed, who took out a pair of scissors, and cut off the hair from the top part of his own head, and in the morning, it appeared his hair was actually cut, and the clippings lay scattered about the floor. A short time after this, an event of a similar nature contributed to give credit to the former story. A young lad of my family was sleeping in his apartment with the rest of his companions, when two persons clad in white came in, as he says, through the windows, cut off his hair as he lay, and then returned the same way they entered. The next morning it was found that this boy had been served just as the other, and there was the hair again, spread about the room. (Pliny the Younger, LXXXIII. To Sura)

I don’t know about you, but if I woke up to a Roman ghost cutting my hair, I would not be quiet about it!

Obviously, Pliny did not witness the ghost himself, but he does say that “This story I believe upon the credit of others [the previous tale]; what I am going to mention [the current tale], I give you upon my own.”

Roman burial with shackled skeleton

What would drive Pliny the Younger – an educated and well-respected man and member of Roman society – to believe this tale and even to seek the advice of Senator Sura?

Of course we don’t know what topics of discussion passed previously between Pliny and Sura, what they might have discussed over dinner in times gone by.

We should bear in mind that Pliny, who was eighteen at the time, bore witness to the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, and the deaths of thousands, including his own uncle.

The ruins of Pompeii with Mount Vesuvius in the background

You could hear the shrieks of women, the wailing of infants, and the shouting of men; some were calling their parents, others their children or their wives, trying to recognize them by their voices. People bewailed their own fate or that of their relatives, and there were some who prayed for death in their terror of dying. Many besought the aid of the gods, but still more imagined there were no gods left, and that the universe was plunged into eternal darkness for evermore. (Pliny the Younger, Letter to Tacitus)

Years later, were the ghosts of Pompeii on his mind? Was Pliny haunted by that event, and did he worry about the dead? Perhaps his questions to Sura masked his own fears of the dead? Maybe he felt a great guilt at surviving the cataclysm of Pompeii?

Your guess is as good as mine.

One thing does seem certain from Pliny’s letter to Sura: the respectable Roman was beset by ghosts, or thoughts of them. Why, we can’t be sure, but it is a great Roman Ghost story!

If you would like to read the full text of Pliny the Younger’s letter to Sura, you can do so by CLICKING HERE.

Thank you for reading.

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The Pylos Combat Agate and the Griffin Warrior Tomb

They came to Pylos, Neleus’ strong-founded citadel, where the people on the shore of the sea were making sacrifice of bulls who were all black to the dark-haired Earthshaker. There were nine settlements of them, and in each five hundred holdings, and from each of these nine bulls were provided.(The Odyssey)

Pylos is a name out of time and legend, immortalized by Homer in the Iliad and the Odyssey, as was the name of Nestor, the son of Neleus and Agamemnon’s right-hand man and aged advisor during the war with Troy.

When you look at the archaeology of the Mycenaean Bronze Age in Greece, one inevitably thinks of places such as Mycenae, Tyrins, and yes, Pylos. These sites are well known.

There is, however, a misconception outside of the world of archaeology that everything has already been found.

This is far from the truth. Archaeologists are excavating new finds all the time, sometimes aided by drought and fire, other times by desperately-needed funding to back strong theories or even hunches about locations.

Pylos is no exception.

Mycenaean Warriors

In the world of ancient Greece, one of the most exciting finds in the last few years is that of the Pylos Combat Agate and the discovery of the Griffin Warrior Tomb.

In today’s post, we’re going to take a look at the tomb and the array of magnificent finds that are challenging previous notions of the evolution of ancient Greek art.

First off, what exactly is at the site of Pylos?

View of the megaron in the Palace of Nestor at Pylos, published by Carl Blegen in the AJA in 1956 before the first roof over the palace was built (image copyright held by the Department of Classics at the University of Cincinnati)

Pylos is located in the southwest of the Peloponnesian mainland of Greece. The palace there is the best-preserved Mycenaean palace yet discovered, said to be the power centre of King Nestor, whose ships joined the Greek army sailing for doomed Troy.

The palace of Pylos was located on a hill within the larger settlement that was, it is supposed, surrounded by an outer wall. It was made up of two storeys with various rooms, workshops, baths, reception rooms, and even a sewage system.

Watercolor reconstruction of the Throne room of Nestor’s Palace by artist, Piet de Jong (Image copyright by the Department of Classics at the University of Cincinnati)

Excavations at Pylos occurred in 1912 and 1926 when two tholos tombs were discovered in the area, but it was in 1939 that a proper, joint Greek-American excavation got underway. This was led by famed archaeologist Carl Blegen, from the University of Cincinnati. Blegen’s initial excavations of Pylos revealed walls, frescoes, Mycenaean pottery, and a royal archive of one thousand tablets.

World War II put the dig on hold for a while, but you can’t keep determined archaeologists down! In 1952, the palace was finally uncovered.

I’ve not been to this site personally yet, but it is definitely on my ‘to visit’ list! Here is a virtual tour of the palace at Pylos:

The University of Cincinnati has continued to excavate at Pylos since Blegen first became involved, more recently under the leadership of the archaeological husband-and-wife team of Jack L. Davis and Sharon Stocker who are responsible for the recent and fascinating discovery of what has become known as the ‘Griffin Warrior Tomb’.

What is the Griffin Warrior Tomb?

It is an undisturbed (and un-looted!) shaft tomb dating to about 1450 B.C. (before the Trojan War). It contained the intact remains of a long-haired adult male of thirty-something, of about 5 ½ feet tall, whose wooden coffin was located in the tomb along with over 3500 grave goods.

Sword and Ring from the Tomb (image copyright by the Department of Classics of the University of Cincinnati)

The grave finds included bronze weapons, armour, jewels and jewellery, mirrors, many items of silver and gold, signet rings, ivory combs, boar tusks (perhaps from a helmet), and more. It is interesting and important to note here that some of the goods are decorated with uniquely Minoan motifs.

There was also an ivory plaque between the warrior’s legs with a carved relief of a griffin. Presumably, this is where they came up with the name of this tomb.

Artist recreation of the Griffin Warrior Tomb as excavated (image copyright by the Department of Classics of the University of Cincinnati)

The tomb was located in an olive grove near the palace of Nestor, but within the Bronze Age city of Pylos.

We have no idea who this man was, but it seems likely that he was a warrior who was both rich and important. It is telling that he was buried not with many ceramic goods, which is common for warrior graves from the age, but rather with much gold and silver and finely wrought weapons. It is also thought that he could have been a priest of sorts due to the fact that many of the grave goods are ritual objects.

Grave finds of Griffin Warrior Tomb (image copyright by the Department of Classics of the University of Cincinnati)

Project co-directors Sharon R. Stocker and Jack L. Davis of the University of Cincinnati note:  “The team did not discover the grave of the legendary King Nestor, who headed a contingent in the Greek forces at Troy. Nor did it find the grave of his father, Neleus.  They found something perhaps of even greater importance: the tomb of one of the powerful men who laid foundations for the Mycenaean civilization, the earliest in Europe.”

This is pretty exciting!

More research and analysis of the finds is, of course, already underway. The exciting thing is that it is thought that more will be discovered about the relationship between the Mycenaean mainland and Minoan Crete.

I’m only summarizing things here. There is a lot more to read about this excavation and the finds and I’ll provide some links at the end of the blog.

Before I do, however, I wanted to touch on the one find that has truly captured the imagination of many around the world, especially my own…

The Pylos Combat Agate.

Here it is:

Image of the Pylos Combat Agate (image copyright by the Department of Classics of the University of Cincinnati)

Isn’t it stunning? Of all the wonderful finds in the Griffin Warrior Tomb, this is the one that pulls me in.

What is it?

At this point, it’s thought to be a Minoan seal that was created around c. 1450 B.C.

It’s named for the fierce combat that it portrays, and is now considered the best work of glyptic art (a symbolic figure carved or incised in relief) ever from the Aegean Bronze Age. In fact, such quality, skilled work in this style was not seen until the Classical Age about a thousand years later!

Who made this gem, and what is the scene being portrayed? Now that’s story to consider!

Pylos Combat Agate before restoration (image copyright by the Department of Classics of the University of Cincinnati)

This magnificent artifact is made of agate and is about 3.4 centimeters (1.3 inches) wide. In the Griffin Warrior Tomb, it was found along with four other signet rings with other engravings such as Minoan bulls.

It is believed that this was obtained from Minoan Crete by Mycenaeans, either by import or theft.

Artist Sketch of the Pylos Combat Agate Scene (image copyright by the Department of Classics of the University of Cincinnati)

Science, archaeology, and history aside…how does this scene make you feel?

The scene depicted is of a vicious battle with an unarmoured, long-haired warrior engaged in a brutal combat with a heavily armoured warrior. The former stands upon the body of a man he has already slain.

We don’t know anything else about this artifact, and we probably never will. But the possibilities are thrilling, aren’t they?

That’s one thing I love about archaeology – the potential for stories.

Every one of the artifacts found in the Griffin Warrior Tomb has a story behind it – how it was made and why, by whom? How did the artifacts come to be in the possession of this wealthy warrior and what meaning did they hold for him?

You can go on and on. Truly, there’s an entire book series to be written about this one man!

I was so inspired last year by the discovery of this artifact that I wrote an ‘Inspired by the Past’ short story about it which is available to all Centurion-level supporters on the Eagles and Dragons Publishing Patreon page.

Jonida Martini and Sharon Stocker excavating the upper layer of artifacts immediately after bronze was discovered. (image copyright by the Department of Classics of the University of Cincinnati)

I’ve only scratched the surface of the history and finds related to the Griffin Warrior Tomb at Pylos, but I hope you’ve found it interesting and that it has inspired you to discover more.

To find out more about the archaeological team, the project and finds, I highly recommend visiting the website set up for the project at: http://www.griffinwarrior.org/griffinwarrior-burial.html

You can also watch the interviews on Greek media with the lead archaeologists on the project, Jack L. Davis and Sharon Stocker. Their excitement and enthusiasm for the finds is contagious and inspiring! Check out the video below (and cue the dramatic Greek news show music!)

Thank you for reading!

 

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Ancient Everyday – The Siesta

Salvete, dear readers!

I hope you’re all having a brilliant summer so far, or winter if you’re in the southern hemisphere!

The extreme heat that’s been hitting much of the world has not by-passed Toronto either. The air has been thick and humid on several occasions, causing folks to drag their feet and stay indoors if they can, or to seek out the nearest body of water to cool off.

It’s amazing how the heat can drain one’s energy!

So, that got me to thinking about a new Ancient Everyday! If you missed the last post on pets, you can check it out HERE.

Today, we’re going to take a brief look at the siesta!

Taking it easy on an ancient afternoon…

The idea of the siesta was not something I grew up with. Few people do in North America. You get up, you work through the day, or go to school, and then you come home, eat and sleep.

Most people associate the siesta with Spain or other Spanish-speaking countries, but I first came across the siesta when visiting Greece years ago. As ever, I was out doing the tourist thing, baking myself among the ruins of various archaeological sites, when the world seemed to grow quiet around 2 p.m. or so.

It was midday, but everyone seemed to have retreated. Businesses closed and restaurants emptied (except in the very touristy locations like the Plaka of Athens). There seemed to be a general hush over the world.

It was surreal. It felt like I was in some apocalyptic movie, the only person left in the world!

Well, maybe that’s an exaggeration, but you get the picture. Things grew very quiet.

On subsequent, longer visits to Greece, my family and friends would come home from work for lunch around 1 p.m. or so, they would eat a big lunch, sleep for an hour or two, and then they would go back to work until about 8 p.m. in the evening.

My thinking was, why would they go back to work? You’ve already been!

Greek dentist and pharmacy signs showing siesta gap in business hours (Wikimedia Commons)

Enter the siesta!

But this habit of breaking up the day and resting during the hottest hours or mid-way point is not a modern invention.

Though many ancient cultures likely took time out in the middle of the day, it was the Romans who gave it the name we are now familiar with.

The word ‘siesta’ is actually derived from the Latin word sexta, which refers to the sixth hour of daylight. This is approximately 1 p.m. in winter, and 3 p.m. in summer. If you want to know all about Roman time-keeping, you can check out the Ancient Everyday mini-series on that topic by CLICKING HERE.

A ‘peristylium’ in a Roman house – excellent place for a siesta!

In ancient Rome, the siestatime of day, the time of sexta, was actually a time to eat and rest, to gather oneself for the second half of the day, whatever that might involve, be it business in the forum, opening your shop for the evening clientele, or loading up a shipment to go to the docks in Ostia. This tradition of day-rest seems to have spread to other cultures across the Roman Empire, including Hispania where it really caught on.

People today might think that the idea of eating a big meal and then taking a long nap in the middle of the working day is ridiculous, but I wouldn’t be too hasty to judge.

There have been plenty of studies to show that midday rest, or naps, are good for productivity and physical and mental performance, they alleviate stress, and are good for the immune system, and of great benefit to cardiovascular and mental health.

Indeed some famous nappers in history were Aristotle, Leonardo da Vinci, Beethoven, Napoleon, Salvador Dali, Einstein, Winston Churchill, and Margaret Thatcher. Whether you like these people and their work or not, you can’t argue that they didn’t get a lot done or have big ideas!

‘The School of Athens’ – bet there are some expert ‘nappers’ here!

The Romans were certainly a productive lot, and one has to wonder if one of the reasons they conquered so much of the world was because they knew how to take time out. Who knows? It’s possible!

Just another thing the Romans gave to the world. Perhaps it’s time we brought back the siesta in force.

Think about it…

And while you do that, I’m going to take a nap…

Thank you for reading.

 

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Historia III – Y Gododdin: The Last Stand of Three Hundred Britons

Hello fellow history-lovers!

Welcome back to the blog for another exciting announcement. Over the past two weeks, we’ve introduced you to Eagles and Dragons Publishing’s new non-fiction series, HISTORIA, and the first two volumes having to do with Celtic Literary Archetypes and Arthurian Romance.

This week, we want to introduce you to the third volume in the series:

Y Gododdin– The Last Stand of Three Hundred Britons: Understanding People and Events during Britain’s Heroic Age

This book introduces the reader to one of the most important and moving literary works to come out of Dark Age Britain: The Gododdin of Aneirin.

The Gododdin is not only a praise poem and elegy for three hundred British warriors who made a heroic last stand against the invaders of their island, it is also an important source for understanding the culture, people, and events of the seventh century.

In this book, the reader will learn about the poem itself, the historical background, as well as the archaeological evidence that has come to light.

The Gododdin is an inspiring, tragic tribute to ‘three hundred gold-torqued warriors’, composed by a man who was their contemporary and friend who sought to ensure their sacrifice would never be forgotten.

If you are studying The Gododdin itself, or have an interest in Celtic, Arthurian, or Dark Age studies, then you will enjoy this short study of the heroic last stand of three hundred men against thousands, an act of historical bravery worthy of the successors of Arthur himself.

Page from the Book of Aneirin – NLW Llyfr Aneirin, Cardiff MS 2.81 (Wikimedia Commons)

The poem, Y Gododdin, is perhaps one that not many of you have heard of before, unless you’ve studied early medieval Welsh poetry, Celtic or Arthurian studies.

I actually came across the poem during my graduate studies, as well as part of my research into the historical ‘Arthur’. The mention of ‘Arthur’ is what drew me to the poem in the first place, but Y Gododdin is so much more than that small reference to a Romano-British hero.

Aneirin’s poem is an amazing example of bardic praise poetry. It sounds very different read aloud, versus in one’s head. But it’s also a moving tribute, an elegy, to a group of three hundred warriors who knew, more or less, that they were riding to their deaths.

I compare the ride of the Gododdin warriors to the last stand of the 300 Spartans at Thermopylae, and I don’t believe this is an exaggeration. The poem sings of their deeds and bravery, but it also gives us an insight into Dark Age society that is invaluable to our understanding of the age.

To me, Y Gododdin is a sort of ‘swan song’ for Romano-Celtic Britain.

If you are interested in getting a copy of this third book in the HISTORIA non-fiction series, you can check it out on Amazon, iTunes and Kobo by CLICKING HERE.

You can also purchase a copy directly from Eagles and Dragons Publishing on the ‘Buy Direct from Eagles and Dragons’ tab of the website, or by CLICKING HERE.

That concludes our launch series for HISTORIA, but we will continue to add more titles over time with the fourth volume coming sometime in the autumn.

Thank you for reading!

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Historia II – Arthurian Romance and the Knightly Ideal

Welcome back, history-lovers!

Last week on the blog we announced the launch of Eagles and Dragons Publishing’s new non-fiction series, HISTORIA. We also introduced you to the first book in the series about Celtic archetypes in the Welsh Mabinogion. If you missed that post, you can check it out by CLICKING HERE.

This week, we’re happy to introduce you to the second volume in the HISTORIA series:

Arthurian Romance and the Knightly Ideal: A study of Medieval Romantic Literature and its Effect upon the Warrior Culture in Europe

This book explores the history and effects of one of the great literary movements in medieval Europe: Arthurian Romance.

This is not just a study of the Arthurian romances and the authors of the genre. It is a study of the true nature of chivalry and courtly love. It is also a look at a revolutionary and inspiring movement and cultural shift among the nobles of medieval Europe, one that altered perceptions of violence and the roles of men and women, influenced social change, and molded the image of the ideal knight.

In this book, the reader will learn about the origins and history of Arthurian Romance, the emergence of courtly culture, the greatest authors of Arthurian Romance, and the evolution of tournaments during the Middle Ages.

Explore the relationship between violence and the knightly ideal, and discover how medieval Arthurian Romance and its ideals may have played a role in civilizing the warrior classes of Europe and creating a new order of chivalry.

If you have an interest in medieval history and literature, Arthurian studies, or if you simply have fond memories of tales of knights and ladies, then you will enjoy this in-depth study of one of the great literary achievements of the Middle Ages.

This might come as a surprise to some of you, but my main field of study over the years has been Arthurian studies, not just the history and archaeology related to the Dark Ages and the search for an understanding of the historical ‘Arthur’, but also the romantic literature that attracted me to the Arthurian legends in the first place.

Of course, the main author that stands out is Chrétien de Troyes who really perfected and popularized the genre of Arthurian Romance.

The writings of Chrétien de Troyes not only influenced my study and perception of history, but they also influenced my own writing a great deal. Perhaps it was because I was first introduced to them at an early age, a time when I was really trying to find myself and my purpose in life, a time when I was filled to the brim with idealism.

In some ways, Arthurian Romance helped to save me from becoming too jaded with the world. It has been my sword and shield during darker times.

What is fascinating is that Arthurian Romance did indeed spark a sort of revolution during the Middle Ages, and enticed the violent knightly class to aspire to something greater than themselves.

Arthurian Romance really did create a new order of chivalry.

I’ve done a lot of research over the years, and this book summarizes much of that work in what I hope is a very accessible way.

If you are interested in getting a copy of this second book in the HISTORIA non-fiction series, you can check it out on Amazon, iTunes and Kobo by CLICKING HERE.

You can also purchase a copy directly from Eagles and Dragons Publishing on the ‘Buy Direct from Eagles and Dragons’tab of the website, or by CLICKING HERE.

Next week, we’ll introduce you to Book III in the HISTORIA series, so stay tuned for that.

Cheers, and thank you for reading!

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HISTORIA – Announcing a new Non-Fiction series from Eagles and Dragons Publishing!

Greetings history-lovers!

This week on the blog, we’ve got an exciting announcement…

Eagles and Dragons Publishing has launched HISTORIA, a new line of non-fiction books that make the study of ancient and medieval history and archaeology accessible for everyone.

Books in the HISTORIA series will introduce readers to a variety of subjects in the form of short, easy-to-understand papers and books.

The first few books, which are now available, focus on my love of Arthurian and Celtic Studies and introduce readers to his academic research over the years.

More books will be added to the HISTORIA series over time, and they will cover history and archaeology from ancient Greece and Rome right through to the Middle Ages. There will be something for everyone!

HISTORIA: A Gateway to Ancient and Medieval History and Archaeology!

This week, we wanted to introduce you the very first title in the HISTORIA series. The full title is ‘Celtic Literary Archetypes in The Mabinogion: A Study of the Ancient Tale of Pwyll, Lord of Dyved’.

This book introduces the reader to some of the literary traditions of the ancient Celts through the study of the first branch of The Mabinogion: Pwyll, Lord of Dyved. This ancient text is both a record of British mythology and a teaching text for ancient princes. It also illustrates the values of Celtic, Iron Age society that carried on into the Middle Ages to shape Arthurian Romance and ideals of chivalry and kingship.

In this book, the reader will learn about the most prominent archetypes in ancient Celtic literature such as occurrences in threes, the importance of contact with the Otherworld, what it meant to be an effective ruler, and more.

Pwyll, Lord of Dyved is a tale of magic and wonder, as well as human trial and experience, and the archetypes it employs are as relevant today as they were over fifteen-hundred years ago.

If you are studying The Mabinogion, or have an interest in Celtic and Arthurian studies, the Arthurian legends and British mythology, then you will enjoy this short, engaging study of one of the great literary achievements of the ancient Celts.

Some people might be surprised that when it comes to historical periods, my interests are, first and foremost, deeply entrenched in what is commonly called the ‘Dark Ages’. To me, that is the Arthurian period, and tales in The Mabinogion are a wonderful source from that time and the traditions that arose out of it.

Why the Dark Ages? Well, to me, the period is a sort of bridge between the classical and medieval worlds. It may have been a time of darkness and despair, with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the effects that had, but it was also a time of hope, of new beginnings. It was perhaps not so much a ‘Dark Age’ as an Heroic Age.

When I first read The Mabinogion, and especially the tale of Pwyll, I was drawn in by the magic of it. After studying it in an academic setting, my eyes were opened to the tale’s importance, and in this new book I endeavour to share some of my research on it with all of you.

If you are interested in getting a copy of this first book in the HISTORIA non-fiction series, you can check it out on Amazon, iTunes and Kobo by CLICKING HERE.

You can also purchase a copy directly from Eagles and Dragons Publishing on the ‘Buy Direct from Eagles and Dragons’ tab of the website, or by CLICKING HERE.

Next week, we’ll introduce you to Book II in the HISTORIA series, so stay tuned for that.

Cheers, thank you for reading, and thank you for joining us on this new adventure for Eagles and Dragons Publishing!

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Roman BBQ

Salvete readers and history-lovers!

Well, Summer has finally arrived in the northern hemisphere, and that means dining al fresco with friends and family, sunny days (one hopes!), and time spent beside bodies of water.

It also means people will be firing up their barbecues! And so, with the upcoming North American holidays of Canada Day (July 1st) and Independence Day in the USA (July 4th), I thought it would be fun to talk briefly about food!

This isn’t just a history post about food in ancient Rome. It’s a practical post, because at the end I’m going to share a recipe with you that is easily done. But first…

We can’t really have a discussion about food in ancient Rome without talking about one man in particular.

He was the gastronome du jour during the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius, and his recipes were used for hundreds of years after his passing.

I’m speaking, of course, about Apicius, or, more formally Marcus Gavius Apicius (25 B.C. – A.D.37).

An imagined likeness of Apicius

Apicius was a man who was largely concerned with fine living and fine food in ancient Rome and his work ‘On Cookery’, also known as ‘Cookery and Dining in Imperial Rome’, which has come down to us, is chock-full of recipes from wines and oils, to desserts, sauces, broths, a lovely array of vegetables, and spices.

There is also a lot about different meats and sea foods, and their preparation and uses, and several of them are quite disturbing if not entertaining.

Apicius’ ‘book’ might have been a sort of Julia Child cookery book of the ancient world, widely used in the kitchens of well-to-do Romans. Here is a picture of a manuscript copy from the A.D. 900:

Apicius manuscript from A.D. 900 (Wikimedia Commons)

When I think of Roman cooking, the first things that I imagine are outlandish dishes and meats that I would never consider eating myself. And if you peruse Apicius, you will indeed read about some things abhorrent to your modern tastes.

Book II of Apicius, dealing with ‘Minces’ includes recipes for Isicia de cerebellis (bain sausage),and Vulvulae Botelli (a dish of sow’s matrix). Or how about Book IV which deals with ‘Miscellanea’ such as Patina Frisilis (vegetable and brain pudding)?

Book VII on ‘Sumptuous Dishes’ has recipes for Vulvae Steriles (spayed sow’s womb), andAliter in Pulmonibus (another way to cook lung). Because I guess, one needs choices when cooking lung!

And then there is everyone’s favourite in Book VIII on ‘Quadrupeds’ which goes into detail about Glires (stuffed dormice).

Dormice – Would you eat these cute little guys? The Romans would!

If you read through the text of Apicius, however, you will see that most of the dishes are quite appealing. There are a lot of wonderful vegetable dishes, and some recipes for meats that would make your mouth water.

With that – and BBQ season – in mind, I thought I would share one of Apicius’ more well-known recipes with you.

What is it?

Hamburgers.

Yes. You heard that correctly. Hamburgers, or, to be more precise, Isicia Omentata.

So, how do you make hamburgers from a 2000 year-old recipe? Let’s see what Apicius says in Book II (chapter 1, 47) on ‘Minces’:

Finely cut pulp of pork is ground with the hearts of winter wheat [fine wheat flour or cream of wheat] and diluted with wine. Flavor lightly with pepper and broth and if you like add a moderate quantity of myrtle berries also crushed, and after you have added crushed nuts and pepper [pepper corns or allspice] shape the forcemeat into small rolls, wrap these in caul, fry, and serve with wine gravy. (Apicius on Cookery)

That’s it. Not much to go on, but the basic ingredients are there. Beef was not as commonly eaten, so it is not surprising that pork was the meat of choice, though you could make this with just about any kind of mince, including a modern veggie mince option.

Order up!

Another translation of the text reveals some different ingredients too. Here is a simplified version:

500g minced meat (or a vegan mince substitute)

60g pine kernels

3 tsp. Garum (Roman fish sauce – you can use a fish sauce from the grocery store, or just regular sea salt)

Ground pepper

Handful of coriander

Juniper berries (optional) – this is a coniferous berry that is used in cooking, but be sure to buy the edible kind, for some species, like Juniperus sabina, are toxic!

Caul fat (optional) – this is the thin membrane which surrounds the internal organs of some animals

Reenactor, Joe Jackson, making Roman Burgers at Birdoswald Roman Fort (Photo by English Heritage)

I admit that I had to look up what ‘Caul fat’ is and, well, I think I would leave that part out. The meat will hold together without it if you use bread or wheat in the mixture. As with many Roman dishes in Apicius, the spices are exotic and interesting, so whether you opt for a meaty or meat-free version of this recipe, it should be a tasty treat hot off the grill!

If you try this out, let us know how it goes in the comments, and whether or not you made any adjustments to the recipe.

To read the full text of Apicius, you can do so for free on the Project Gutenberg website here: http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/29728

Have a look at the dishes throughout. You never know! You might just have the makings of a Roman BBQ fit for an emperor!

Thank you for reading!

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Ancient Eleusis and the Mysteries

I begin to sing of rich-haired Demeter, awful goddess — of her and her trim-ankled daughter whom Aidoneus rapt away, given to him by all-seeing Zeus the loud-thunderer.(The Hymn to Demeter)

Greetings history-lovers.

We’re going on a journey today to one of the most sacred sites of ancient Greece. It’s been a while since I took you on a site visit – we’ve already been to Olympia, Delphi, Nemea, Bassae, Brauron, Epidaurus, Delos and more – and so, the time has come for another.

Today we are going to briefly discuss the site, the history and mythology of ancient Eleusis (pronounced ‘Elefsis’), a site that was sacred for thousands of years right through the period of the Roman Empire, and which was where the Eleusinian Mysteries took place.

Eleusis is not just an ancient religious site and sanctuary. It’s much more than that. It’s a story of abduction, of a mother’s grief and her revenge, of overcoming the fear of death, and of hope for the future. Visiting this site is unlike any other. I hope you enjoy the journey…

Ancient relief some believe represents Demeter and Persephone

Apart from Demeter, lady of the golden sword and glorious fruits, she [Persephone] was playing with the deep-bosomed daughters of Oceanus and gathering flowers over a soft meadow, roses and crocuses and beautiful violets, irises also and hyacinths and the narcissus, which Earth made to grow at the will of Zeus and to please the Host of Many, to be a snare for the bloom-like girl — a marvellous, radiant flower. It was a thing of awe whether for deathless gods or mortal men to see: from its root grew a hundred blooms and is smelled most sweetly, so that all wide heaven above and the whole earth and the sea’s salt swell laughed for joy. And the girl was amazed and reached out with both hands to take the lovely toy; but the wide-pathed earth yawned there in the plain of Nysa, and the lord, Host of Many, with his immortal horses sprang out upon her — the Son of Cronos, He who has many names… He caught her up reluctant on his golden car and bare her away lamenting. Then she cried out shrilly with her voice, calling upon her father, the Son of Cronos, who is most high and excellent. But no one, either of the deathless gods or of mortal men, heard her voice, nor yet the olive-trees bearing rich fruit… (The Hymn to Demeter)

Rarely have I been to an ancient site as moving as Eleusis, modern Elefsina to the northwest of Athens. The memory of it haunts me still.

I left our home in the UK to visit family in Athens for the Christmas holidays. The celebrations were finished, Christmas and New Year having passed in a flurry of food and drink, and we were looking for sites to visit.

We decided on Eleusis.

Admittedly, I did not know a lot about the site at the time, but I had read about its importance, heard whispers of the Mysteries in some of the books I had read.

It was a cold and rainy day in January when we set out on the drive from Athens. I expected to get out into the countryside at some point, as we so often do when visiting sites, but the entirety of the drive, we were surrounded by the urban world, the sea occasionally coming into view.

Before I knew it, we were there, tightly parked on a dirty side street in front of low apartment buildings and homes. I got out of the car and looked around. Across the way there was a fence that surrounded a vast archaeological site, but first my eyes were drawn to the signs of industry not far off – cranes and shipyards, and shipping containers stacked to the sky. I also noted that average private homes looked directly onto the archaeological site.

This can’t be the site of the Eleusinian Mysteries, can it? I thought. But it was.

Demetra (Elefsina museum)

It is truly jarring to come to such an ancient site, revered throughout the ancient world, to see the dirty, modern world laying siege to it, crushing its edges like a polluted sea around an island paradise.

We made our way to the entrance, purchased our tickets and a guide book, and entered the site.

When I visit a site, more often than not, I don’t think first of the physical remains I’m about to see. I think of the story behind the place, the events that occurred there. And so, first, we should look briefly at the story of Eleusis…

Vase showing the abduction of Persephone

Demeter, Goddess of the harvest and agriculture, and sister of Zeus, lost her daughter, Persephone (also known as ‘Kore’). Hades (Pluto), god of the Underworld, had fallen in love with the young girl and abducted her, taking her back to his kingdom beneath the earth.

Demeter, despairing for the loss of her daughter, wandered the earth until she came to Eleusis. She was found weeping at a well there, near a doorway to the Underworld. The local king built her a temple at Eleusis and the goddess, angry at both gods and men for the loss of her daughter, locked herself away in the temple.

Drought and famine ravaged the land and mortals began to die in large numbers. And so, Zeus intervened with Hades on Demeter’s behalf and it was agreed that Persephone would be permitted to leave the Underworld for a part of the year while dwelling there for the four months of winter when the land is dead and cold.

Once the bargain was struck, Demeter emerged from her temple to teach the Eleusinians special rites for their morals as well as ways to cultivate the land.

Bitter pain seized her heart, and she rent the covering upon her divine hair with her dear hands: her dark cloak she cast down from both her shoulders and sped, like a wild-bird, over the firm land and yielding sea, seeking her child. But no one would tell her the truth, neither god nor mortal men; and of the birds of omen none came with true news for her. Then for nine days queenly Deo[Demeter]wandered over the earth with flaming torches in her hands, so grieved that she never tasted ambrosia and the sweet draught of nectar, nor sprinkled her body with water.(The Hymn to Demeter)

It’s a tragic tale, in true Greek fashion. But, before we go any further, we should discuss a little about the history of this site.

Plan of Eleusis (Perseus Digital Library)

Eleusis, where it stands in the southwest corner of the Thriasian Plain, has been inhabited since the Middle Helladic period (1900 – 1600 B.C.). It was during the later Mycenaean period that the first temple of Demeter was built, during the reign of the legendary king, Celeus.

Eleusis was an important strategic site on the route from Athens to the Peloponnese, Boeotia, and northern Greece. Over time, there were a series of conflicts between the Eleusinians and Athens until the time of King Theseus (yes, that Theseus) when it was subjugated and became the demeof the tribe of Hippothontis, the latter remaining the official keepers of the Mysteries there.

During the Geometric period (1100-700 B.C.), which came after the Trojan War, the cult of Demeter grew in popularity. It was in 760 B.C., the year of the fifth Olympiad, that there was a famine in Greece, and at the behest of the Oracle of Delphi, a sacrifice and festival to Demeter were begun at Eleusis. At this time a large wall was built around the sanctuary, enclosing the Plutoneion and the Telesterion. We’ll discuss these two structures shortly.

Relief showing symbols of the Mysteries

Some believe that it was this period which may have been the beginning of the Pan-Hellenic Eleusinian cult. Subsequently, during the time of Solon (c. 600 B.C.) the Eleusinian Mysteries were made one of the sacred Athenian festivals and a new, larger Telesterion and open courts were built for ceremonies to hide the rituals from the eyes of the uninitiated.

The Telesterion (which means ‘where ceremony takes place’) itself was a large structure with six entrances (two on three sides) where the rituals and ceremonies of initiates took place. During the rule of Pisistratus and his family (c. 550-510 B.C.), the Telesterion was enlarged even more and made on a square plan, the walls also being improved upon to make the sanctuary a sort of stronghold.

View inside the Telesterion (Wikimedia Commons)

Sadly, during the Persian wars, the sanctuary of Eleusis was destroyed by the troops of Xerxes and Mardonius around 479 B.C. It was rebuilt by Cimon after the battle of Plataea when the Persians were defeated.

In the second half of the fifth century, Eleusis was included in the building programs of Pericles and, once more, the Telesterion, the focal point of the sanctuary and Mysteries, was enlarged to be bigger than ever before. Fortunately, all sides during the Peloponnesian War respected the sanctity of Eleusis, and so it escaped harm during that bloody conflict.

Over time, the sanctuary of Eleusis came to be controlled by others than the Athenians – the Macedonians during the Hellenistic age, and the Romans during the Roman Empire when, during the reigns of Hadrian (A.D.117-138) and Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 161-180), there was a final flurry of activity. The sanctuary achieved its greatest extent with the addition of triumphal arches, large and small propylaea, and a Roman court.

Also, Roman citizens were then permitted to be initiated into the Mysteries.

Adam standing in front of one of the Roman pediments portraying Marcus Aurelius or Hadrian in the Roman Court of Eleusis.

The end of the Eleusinian Mysteries began with the Theodosian decrees in around A.D. 350 when the ancient cults were forbidden in favour of Christianity, and then in A.D. 395 Alaric and his Visigoths destroyed the sanctuary once and for all.

The cult of Demeter faded away…

Demeter mourning Persephone (Evelyn de Morgan – 1906)

Now when all-seeing Zeus the loud-thunderer heard this, he sent the Slayer of Argus whose wand is of gold to Erebus, so that having won over Hades with soft words, he might lead forth chaste Persephone to the light from the misty gloom to join the gods, and that her mother might see her with her eyes and cease from her anger. And Hermes obeyed, and leaving the house of Olympus, straightway sprang down with speed to the hidden places of the earth. And he found the lord Hades in his house seated upon a couch, and his shy mate with him, much reluctant, because she yearned for her mother. But she was afar off, brooding on her fell design because of the deeds of the blessed gods. And the strong Slayer of Argus drew near and said:

“Dark-haired Hades, ruler over the departed, father Zeus bids me bring noble Persephone forth from Erebus unto the gods, that her mother may see her with her eyes and cease from her dread anger with the immortals; for now she plans an awful deed, to destroy the weakly tribes of earthborn men by keeping seed hidden beneath the earth, and so she makes an end of the honours of the undying gods. For she keeps fearful anger and does not consort with the gods, but sits aloof in her fragrant temple, dwelling in the rocky hold of Eleusis.”

So he said. And Aidoneus, ruler over the dead, smiled grimly and obeyed the behest of Zeus the king. For he straightway urged wise Persephone, saying: “Go now, Persephone, to your dark-robed mother, go, and feel kindly in your heart towards me: be not so exceedingly cast down; for I shall be no unfitting husband for you among the deathless gods, that am own brother to father Zeus. And while you are here, you shall rule all that lives and moves and shall have the greatest rights among the deathless gods: those who defraud you and do not appease your power with offerings, reverently performing rites and paying fit gifts, shall be punished for evermore. (The Hymn to Demeter)

Persephone and Hades enthroned in the Underworld

If I remember correctly, we entered the sanctuary from the area known as the Roman Court, there to be greeted by the face of a Roman emperor on a pediment, possibly Marcus Aurelius or Hadrian.

Upon entering, the sight that meets you is one of ruin, especially if it is a cloudy, cold day. I know that when I stepped onto the site of the sanctuary, I felt a great sadness. And it’s no wonder, considering the story behind it all, and why Eleusis was such a sacred place to the ancient Greeks and Romans.

Persephone was filled with joy and hastily sprang up for gladness. But he on his part secretly gave her sweet pomegranate seed to eat, taking care for himself that she might not remain continually with grave, dark-robed Demeter. Then Aidoneus the Ruler of Many openly got ready his deathless horses beneath the golden chariot. And she mounted on the chariot, and the strong Slayer of Argos took reins and whip in his dear hands and drove forth from the hall, the horses speeding readily. Swiftly they traversed their long course, and neither the sea nor river-waters nor grassy glens nor mountain-peaks checked the career of the immortal horses, but they clave the deep air above them as they went. And Hermes brought them to the place where rich-crowned Demeter was staying and checked them before her fragrant temple.(The Hymn to Demeter)

It is indeed a strange thing to come to a place where the myths come alive, where the air still rings with weeping and the chants of thousands of initiates whose thoughts were bent upon that same sad story across the ages.

As I walked through the greater and lesser propylaeafarther into the sanctuary, on my right there appeared a dark, hollowed out rock face.

The Ploutoneion of Eleusis – The Door to Hades

This was the area of the Ploutoneion, and there, at the base of the rock, the gateway to Hades itself.

But the sad thing was the small round well before it where Demeter is said to have knelt down and wept for her daughter.

To me, this was the most moving part of the sanctuary of Eleusis. It is a place of mourning and regret, a sort of ancient crime scene.

The Well of Demeter

And when Demeter saw them, she rushed forth as does a Maenad down some thick-wooded mountain, while Persephone on the other side, when she saw her mother’s sweet eyes, left the chariot and horses, and leaped down to run to her, and falling upon her neck, embraced her. But while Demeter was still holding her dear child in her arms, her heart suddenly misgave her for some snare, so that she feared greatly and ceased fondling her daughter and asked of her at once: “My child, tell me, surely you have not tasted any food while you were below? Speak out and hide nothing, but let us both know. For if you have not, you shall come back from loathly Hades and live with me and your father, the dark-clouded Son of Cronos and be honoured by all the deathless gods; but if you have tasted food, you must go back again beneath the secret places of the earth, there to dwell a third part of the seasons every year: yet for the two parts you shall be with me and the other deathless gods. But when the earth shall bloom with the fragrant flowers of spring in every kind, then from the realm of darkness and gloom thou shalt come up once more to be a wonder for gods and mortal men.(The Hymn to Demeter)

What were the Eleusinian Mysteries all about? What was involved?

The truth is, we don’t actually know much at all. That is the nature of ancient mystery religions. The initiates had to be chosen and then they underwent instruction, but they were sworn to absolute secrecy about what occurred inside the sanctuary and the rites that took place in the Telesterion, the focal point of the Mysteries themselves.

What we do know today is solely based on the public rituals of the festival.

We know that the Mysteries were celebrated twice a year, in the Spring and in the Autumn. The ‘Lesser Mysteries’ were celebrated near Athens in the Spring in the month of Anthesterion (March), and the ‘Greater Mysteries’ were celebrated in the Autumn in the month of Boedromion (September).

Here is what we know was involved…

The Greater Mysteries, over several days, involved making sacrifices, and a procession with the priestess of Demeter carrying the sacred cymbals all the way from Eleusis to Athens.

An official proclamation, or prorrhesis, of the opening of the festivities followed the procession. Anyone who was guilty of murder, desecration, or who spoke no Greek was excluded from the festivities.

Initiates of the Eleusinian Mysteries went through a ceremony of purification in the sea at Phaleron (modern Faliro in Athens), and sacrificed piglets. More sacrifices followed and then there was the great procession of initiates from Athens to Eleusis along the Sacred Way with stops at altars and shrines along the journey, more sacrifices and the chanting of hymns.

Model of the Sanctuary of Eleusis with the Ploutoneion in the centre and the large Telesterion top left

The procession ended in the large outer court of the Eleusinian sanctuary where initiates were met by the priests. There were ritual dances and after that we don’t know much more.

Initiates moved inside the Telesterion where the secret part of the ceremonies took place.

It is suspected that the Mysteries may have involved a re-enactment of the abduction of Persephone (Kore), a ceremony only for initiates of previous years, and perhaps the honouring of the dead with libations.

People were supposed to return home after taking part in the Mysteries feeling less fearful of Death, and carrying with them hopes of a better life.

And all-seeing Zeus sent a messenger to them, rich-haired Rhea, to bring dark-cloaked Demeter to join the families of the gods: and he promised to give her what right she should choose among the deathless gods and agreed that her daughter should go down for the third part of the circling year to darkness and gloom, but for the two parts should live with her mother and the other deathless gods. Thus he commanded. And the goddess did not disobey the message of Zeus; swiftly she rushed down from the peaks of Olympus and came to the plain of Rharus, rich, fertile corn-land once, but then in nowise fruitful, for it lay idle and utterly leafless, because the white grain was hidden by design of trim-ankled Demeter. But afterwards, as springtime waxed, it was soon to be waving with long ears of corn, and its rich furrows to be loaded with grain upon the ground, while others would already be bound in sheaves. There first she landed from the fruitless upper air: and glad were the goddesses to see each other and cheered in heart.

Then bright-coiffed Rhea said to Demeter: “Come, my daughter; for far-seeing Zeus the loud-thunderer calls you to join the families of the gods, and has promised to give you what rights you please among the deathless gods, and has agreed that for a third part of the circling year your daughter shall go down to darkness and gloom, but for the two parts shall be with you and the other deathless gods: so has he declared it shall be and has bowed his head in token. But come, my child, obey, and be not too angry unrelentingly with the dark-clouded Son of Cronos; but rather increase forthwith for men the fruit that gives them life.” (The Hymn to Demeter)

Remains of the Telesterion of Eleusis

I tore myself away from the well where Demeter was said to have shed her tears, and the dread doorway to the Underworld. It was as if the air were filled with Demeter’s sobbing and the distant echo of Persephone’s cries from deep down in the rock.

The sky darkened as I walked farther into the sanctuary, up a long path until I found myself looking down onto a massive square area below. It was the Telesterion.

As mentioned, this was the place where the secret rituals of the Eleusinian Mysteries took place, around the spot where the original temple was built. The temple foundations are still visible within the broad expanse of the large, square Telesterion.

I stared down at this and wondered what could have gone on inside that cavernous structure.

I also thought about how amazing it was that the initiates of the Eleusinian Mysteries took their oath of secrecy so very seriously. Was it fear of the gods that kept them from revealing what went on, or was it the supreme respect they had for the Mysteries, and the gratitude they felt for being allowed to be a part of it?

We can only guess from what scant references there are in ancient writings, but really, some things are better left secret, their names shrouded in mystery and myth.

Hermes returns Persephone to Demeter

I stood there in the rain staring at the Telesterion for some time. I felt indeed like an outsider, an intruder of sorts. After all, I was not an initiate. If I was, perhaps I would have felt something other than sadness visiting the Eleusinian sanctuary. Perhaps initiates, having faced ceremonial death and sadness, were actually even more open to hope and life itself. Was that the gift of Demeter and the Mysteries?

I wondered about that then, even as I do now.

So spake Rhea. And rich-crowned Demeter did not refuse but straightway made fruit to spring up from the rich lands, so that the whole wide earth was laden with leaves and flowers. Then she went, and to the kings who deal justice, Triptolemus and Diocles, the horse-driver, and to doughty Eumolpus and Celeus, leader of the people, she showed the conduct of her rites and taught them all her mysteries, to Triptolemus and Polyxeinus and Diocles also, — awful mysteries which no one may in any way transgress or pry into or utter, for deep awe of the gods checks the voice. Happy is he among men upon earth who has seen these mysteries; but he who is uninitiate and who has no part in them, never has lot of like good things once he is dead, down in the darkness and gloom.

But when the bright goddess had taught them all, they went to Olympus to the gathering of the other gods. And there they dwell beside Zeus who delights in thunder, awful and reverend goddesses. Right blessed is he among men on earth whom they freely love: soon they do send Plutus as guest to his great house, Plutus who gives wealth to mortal men.

And now, queen of the land of sweet Eleusis and sea-girt Paros and rocky Antron, lady, giver of good gifts, bringer of seasons, queen Deo, be gracious, you and your daughter all beauteous Persephone, and for my song grant me heart-cheering substance.(The Hymn to Demeter)

Of course we each have our own experiences when visiting an ancient site. I hope you have found this interesting, and that it compels you to visit Eleusis and the museum yourself if you ever have the chance.

For the fiction-readers among you, I would recommend the book Mysteries of Eleusis by Margaret Doody, which is part of her Aristotle Detective series. In the book she does go through a lot of what we do know about the Mysteries, including the ritual bathing and procession from Athens to Eleusis. A fun read for summer!

If you would like to read the full Hymn to Demeter, you can also do so HERE.

Thank you for reading.

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Roman Ghosts – Sentries of the Saxon Shore

Salvete, Readers!

Today we have our second post in the Roman Ghosts series, and this one is guaranteed to give you shivers.

If you missed the first post about Shades in Eburacum, you can check it out by CLICKING HERE.

Many of you have written to us about Roman ghost sightings in the UK, and we are keen to research them and share with everyone. Rest assured, they’re all on the list! Today’s post comes by way of a tip from Eagles and Dragons reader, Michael Dennis.

Aerial view of Reculver

This particular look at Roman ghosts takes us to Reculver on the Kentish coast in England, in particular a site on the promontory at the mouth of the Watsum Channel, facing the Isle of Thanet.

Before we get into the spectral sightings associated with this remote location, we should, of course, look briefly at the history of the place.

Reculver was the site of Roman Regulbium which comes from the Celtic name meaning ‘at the promontory’.

It was on this site during the Claudian invasion of Britain in A.D. 43 that a Roman fortlet was first built. Tense times in the land, of course. Eventually, the fort was connected by road to the settlement of Durovernum, modern Canterbury.

Remains of the Roman walls of Regulbium

Eventually, in the late second century, a larger Roman castrum was built on the site, and this included a basilica as part of the principia (headquarters building), barracks, a bathhouse, and even a nearby oven which was located outside the walls. The walls themselves were almost fifteen feet high and ten feet thick. Sadly, much of the fort has been lost to the sea and erosion.

What does remain are two of the Roman towers which were incorporated into the early medieval Saxon church of St. Mary’s. More on these towers later…

The Notitia Dignitatum, the great Roman administrative document of the early fifth century, indicates that the Cohors I Baetasiorum was stationed at Regulbium. These troops of the Baetasii tribe inhabiting the lands between the Rhine and the Meuse, in Germania Inferior, were a good distance from their homes.

Regulbium was apparently abandoned after A.D. 360, but from what we have been reading, it may well be that some of the troops never went home.

Map of the fort showing how much has been lost to erosion and the sea.

Try and imagine a soldier, or a cohort of soldiers, based in a specific location for an extended period of time. Routine and disciplina, as the Romans called it, were central to a soldier’s life. Sometimes they lived and died in a specific place, had families, lost loved ones, took life and shed blood.

Well, in Regulbium to this day, it seems that some of the Roman soldiers are determined to keep to their schedules and their posts.

There have been many reports of Roman soldiers seen on patrol at Reculver fort (Regulbium) or keeping ghostly sentry duty there, so much so that visitors, even in summer, claim that there is something very ‘wrong’ about the place.

Apparently, the site of the Roman fort is so haunted that it has become a destination for amateur ghost hunters!

Artist impression of Regulbium

But it isn’t just the ghosts of groups of Roman soldiers on patrol that people have reported seeing. There have also been chilling reports of a lone Roman soldier standing stolidly at his sentry post somewhere between the two remaining towers that stand there to this day.

What might the shade of that Roman be looking out for? A returning patrol? Raiding Saxon ships coming into the isle between the fort and Thanet?

Who knows? One thing is for sure, there are more than just the shades of Roman soldiers lurking around the fort.

There have also been numerous reports of phantom babies crying on the wind when people have visited the fort!

One might think that this is just the gusting wind playing tricks on visitors to the fort. Then again, perhaps not.

The remaining towers of Regulbium, incorporated into the church of St. Mary’s

When excavations were carried out at the fort, the burials of ten infants were found within the fort itself, and six of these were associated with specifically Roman buildings.

There are some theories that the infants were part of a ritual sacrifice there, but it is not known if they were dead already (stillborn), or if they were killed as part of the ritual.

Seeing as Romans more or less frowned on human sacrifice (apart from in the arena), the slaying of babies does seem to be a bit of a stretch, but one never knows. Perhaps the Baetasii tribe from the Rhine region did that sort of thing, perhaps not.

Either way, the remains of infants have been found, and whatever the circumstances of their deaths, it seems likely that the wailing of their little shades at the fort would be enough to turn the legs of the toughest legionary to mush.

Have you been to the ruins of Regulbium? Would you go after reading this?

I’m not sure I would.

The towers of Reculver from the current beach.

We hope you’ve enjoyed this second post in the Roman Ghosts series. For more information on the haunted site you can check out the book Haunted Kent, by Janet Cameron.

For information about the archaeology and ruins of Roman Regulbium, you can check out the Historic England page by CLICKING HERE.

Remember, if you know of any Roman ghost stories in any part of the former Roman Empire that you would like to share, just send us an email through the Contact Uspage of the website and we’ll look into it.

Thank you for reading!

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