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The World of The Hearts of Heroes – Part VII – Alexander Severus: The End of the Severan Dynasty

Greetings Readers and Romanophiles!

Welcome back to The World of The Hearts of Heroes, the blog series in which we are exploring the history, people, and places behind-the-scenes of the newest Eagles and Dragons historical fantasy novel. 

If you missed the previous post on the very first church at Glastonbury, you can read that by CLICKING HERE.

In this seventh and final article, we’re going to look at the reign of Emperor Alexander Severus (A.D. 222-235) and how it brought about the end of the Severan dynasty.

Let’s begin…

The Severan Dynasty (Wikimedia Commons)

Sunt lacrimae rerum et mentem mortalia tangunt.

‘There are tears for things, and mortal sorrows touch the heart.’

(Virgil, The Aeneid, 1.462)

It has been quite an adventure getting to this point in the Eagles and Dragons series for, like the hero Aeneas looking back on his memories of war and toil above, my time spent with the Severans, researching and writing about them, has come to an end.

The Severan dynasty is, strangely enough, often overlooked by historians, authors, and scriptwriters who tend to focus on the sensational Julio-Claudians or the stoic Antonines. This is somewhat surprising as the years from A.D. 193 to A.D. 235 not only saw the Roman Empire at its greatest extent and power, but the period also, as is believed by some historians, brought about the beginning of the end of the Roman Empire.

However, it was the lack of attention to the Severans that provided the opportunity with this series of books to cut a new path to explore the history of this dynasty through fiction. From the powerful rise of Septimius Severus and the ‘Syrian women’, their actions, and the mistakes of their heirs, we have received a masterclass in the nature of power and politics, the importance of military might, and the fragility of the Pax Romana. We have learned about the two-faced nature of trust and the fickle ways of fortune.

The dynasty that Septimius Severus (A.D. 193-211) established through sheer will, blood, and determination eventually came to a lamentable end due to flawed nature of familial love, the shortcomings of his successors, and the jealousies and aspirations of others.

The Hearts of Heroes takes place in the final years of the Severans, during the reign of its last emperor, Alexander Severus. As we shall see, at the outset of his reign, he provided a much-needed glimmer of hope during a dark period in Rome’s history, but it was not enough to prevent the eventual downfall of that once-powerful family…

Map of the Roman Empire at its greatest extent (Oxford Research Encyclopedias)

Before we get into the reign of Alexander Severus, it is important to look at the brief reign of his slightly older cousin, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, known to us as Emperor Elagabalus, or ‘Heliogabalus’ (A.D. 218-222).

Elagabalus was the son of Julia Soaemias who was the daughter of the power Syrian woman, Julia Maesa, sister to Empress Julia Domna. That made him the great-nephew, by marriage, of Emperor Septimius Severus.

In hindsight, if there could be said to be a stain on the Severan line of succession, it would be Elagabalus, for though Caracalla’s reign was riddled with violent episodes, he did make an attempt at ruling the Empire and leading the army. Elagabalus’ reign, however, is marked by controversy, sexual debauchery, and murder which, if the sources are correct, seems akin to the madness of the reign of Caligula. In addition to this, and like Caligula, he made strange appointments to high positions, and disrespected Rome’s gods in favour of his dark Syrian god, Elagabal.

Elagabalus was set upon the imperial throne at just fourteen years old through the wiles of his grandmother, Julia Maesa, on year after the previous pretender, Marcus Opellius Macrinus (the only non-Severan of the period) conspired to have Emperor Caracalla murdered. Julia Maesa, took advantage of the unrest around Emperor Macrinus to instigate a rebellion and have Elagabalus declared emperor after the Battle of Antioch on June 8, A.D. 218.

Aureus of Elagabalus (c. A.D. 204-222)

It soon became apparent that Elagabalus was not suited to the role of Emperor, opting instead for dark rituals, cross-dressing, and generally disregarding the traditions of the Senate and people of Rome.

Perhaps most dangerous of all, he had lost the respect of the army. Cassius Dio, one of our main sources for the period, speaks to this:

The false Antoninus [Elagabalus] was despised and put out of the way by the soldiers. Thus it is that persons, particularly if armed, when they have once accustomed themselves to feel contempt for their rulers, set no limit to their right to do what they please, but keep their arms ready to use against the very man who gave them that power.

(Cassius Dio, Roman History, XVII)

Elagabalus’ grandmother, Julia Maesa, saw what was coming and, no doubt with the murder of Caracalla (with whom she had been very close) in mind, she began planning ahead so as to avoid another upstart like Macrinus.

She pinned her hopes on her other grandson, Alexianus (later Alexander Severus)…

Observing his actions, Maesa suspected that the soldiers were outraged by his eccentricities. Fearing that if Heliogabalus were killed, she would become a private citizen again, she tried to persuade the youth, who was in every respect an empty-headed young idiot, to adopt as his son and appoint as caesar his first cousin and her grandson, the child of her other daughter, Mamaea.

She told the emperor what it pleased him to hear, that it was clearly necessary for him to have time to attend to the worship and service of his god and to devote himself to the rites and revelries and divine functions, but that there should be another responsible for human affairs, to afford him leisure and freedom from the cares of empire. It was not necessary for him, she said, to look for a stranger or someone not a relative; he should entrust these duties to his own cousin.

(Herodian, The Roman History, V 7.1, 7.2)

Julia Maesa (A.D. 160-224)

And so, in A.D. 221, Alexander, who was twelve at the time, was adopted by his cousin Elagabalus as his heir, and given the title of ‘Caesar’.

This was a very dangerous time for the young Alexander, for in being so close to his mad, older cousin, he was in greater danger. If not for the two strong women looking after him – his grandmother, Julia Maesa, and his mother, Julia Mamaea – he would certainly have fallen victim to Elagabalus and his retinue.

Herodian, the main source for the reign of Alexander Severus, describes what happened…

After adopting Alexander as caesar, Heliogabalus [Elagabalus] undertook to teach him his own practices; he instructed him in dancing and prancing, and, enrolling him in the priesthood, wanted the lad to imitate his appearance and actions.

But his mother Mamaea kept Alexander from taking part in activities so disgraceful and unworthy of an emperor. Privately, she summoned teachers of every subject and had her son trained in the lessons of self-discipline; since he devoted himself to wrestling and to physical exercise as well, he was, by his mother’s efforts, educated according to both the Greek and the Roman systems. Heliogabalus, much annoyed at this, regretted his decision to make Alexander his son and partner in the empire.

He therefore banished Alexander’s teachers from the imperial palace; he put to death some of the most distinguished and sent others into exile. The emperor offered the most absurd excuses for doing this, claiming that these men, by teaching Alexander self-control, educating him in human affairs, and refusing to allow him to dance and take part in the frenzied orgies, would corrupt his adopted son. The madness of Heliogabalus increased to such a degree that he appointed all the actors from the stage and the public theaters to the most important posts in the empire, selecting as his praetorian prefect a man who had from childhood danced publicly in the Roman theater…

…They kept continual watch upon the youth [Alexander] when they saw that Heliogabalus was plotting against him. His mother Mamaea did not allow her son to touch any food or drink sent by the emperor, nor did Alexander use the cupbearers or cooks employed in the palace or those who happened to be in their mutual service; only those chosen by his mother, those who seemed most trustworthy, were allowed to handle Alexander’s food.

(Herodian, The Roman History, V 7.4-8.2)

Alexander Severus (A.D. 208-235)

It was only by his grandmother’s ruthlessness, his mother’s love, the respect of the Praetorians, and the gold Maesa and Mamaea lavished upon them, that Alexander survived that period, despite several plots by the Emperor to have him killed.

Julia Maesa, who was well used to surviving the dangers of an imperial court, saw the great danger that Elagabalus posed to them all. She plotted with the Praetorians to have Elagabalus removed. The Praetorians, it seems, did not need a great deal motivation in this, for when many of them showed favour to the younger Alexander, Elagabalus had them arrested. This was the final straw.

In March, A.D. 222, when the Emperor, his mother Soaemias, and Alexander were at the Castra Praetoria, the deed was done:

The praetorians were enraged by this order; since they had other reasons, also, for hating Heliogabalus, they wished now to rid themselves of so disgraceful an emperor, and believed, too, that they should rescue the praetorians under arrest. Considering the occasion ideal and the provocation just, they killed Heliogabalus and his mother Soaemias (for she was in the camp as Augusta and as his mother), together with all his attendants who were seized in the camp and who seemed to be his associates and companions in evil.

They gave the bodies of Heliogabalus and Soaemias to those who wanted to drag them about and abuse them; when the bodies had been dragged throughout the city, the mutilated corpses were thrown into the public sewer which flows into the Tiber.

(Herodian, The Roman History, V 8.8-8.9)

Elagabalus was just eighteen when he died so ignominious a death. Cassius Dio, who would have known all of them, describes their end in gruesome detail:

His mother [Soaemias], who embraced him and clung tightly to him, perished with him; their heads were cut off and their bodies, after being stripped naked, were first dragged all over the city, and then the mother’s body was cast aside somewhere or other, while his was thrown into the river.

(Cassius Dio, Roman History, LXXX, 20)

Thus, Julia Maesa succeeded in having her own daughter and grandson removed, and her other grandson proclaimed Emperor by the Praetorian Guard at just fourteen years old.

Julia Mamaea (A.D. 180-235)

A period of normalcy returned to the Empire with Alexander Severus being given the title and role of Emperor while his grandmother and mother managed and controlled imperial affairs in a more moderate and equitable administration that appeared to lean more toward common sense and nurturing the loyalty of the troops, a lesson they had all learned the importance of from Septimius Severus.

Together, they chose from members of the Senate an advisory council of sixteen wise men to guide the Emperor in decision making. This also gave a measure of power (at least perceived power) back to the aristocracy. The insults done to Rome’s gods were also fixed as their statues were replaced and those of Elagabalus’ choosing were removed. And, in the business of government, matters of state and public affairs were entrusted to competent lawyers and orators rather than actors, and military affairs were given over to actual men experienced in war.

It seemed like a new and hopeful age was upon the Empire and the Roman people.

But then, in A.D. 226, the matriarch of the Severan dynasty, Julia Maesa, died of old age. She received imperial honours and was deified.

And so, Julia Mamaea was now alone with the Emperor who was now about eighteen years old.

The Forum Romanum – The Heart of Ancient Rome with the Arch of Septimius Severus (centre left)

Julia Mamaea knew that she and her son were in a precarious position at this point in time and so, according to Herodian, she took steps to protect him with extreme vigilance. She also sought to control him, no doubt traumatized by the years of her nephew’s rule.

Now left alone with her son, Mamaea tried to govern and control him in the same fashion. Fearing that his vigorous young manhood might plunge him into the errors of adolescence because his power and position were assured, Mamaea kept the palace under close guard and allowed no one suspected of debauchery to approach the youth. She was afraid that his character would be corrupted if his flatterers aroused his growing appetites to disgraceful desires.

She therefore induced him to serve as judge in the courts continually and for most of each day; occupied with important matters and the necessary business of the empire, he would have no opportunity to indulge in scandalous practices. Alexander’s deportment was governed by a character naturally mild and civilized, and much inclined to benevolence, as was made clear when the youth grew older.

At any rate, he entered the fourteenth year of his reign without bloodshed, and no one could say that the emperor had been responsible for anyone’s murder. Even though men were convicted of serious crimes, he nevertheless granted them pardons to avoid putting them to death, and not readily did any emperor of our time, after the reign of Marcus, act in this way or display so much concern for human life. Indeed, over a period of many years, no one could recall that any man had been condemned to death by Alexander without a trial.

(Herodian, The Roman History, VI 1.5-1.7)

The Praetorian Guard

According to historian Michael Grant, Julia Mamaea’s tenure as Mater Augusti et Castrorum, ‘Mother of the Augustus and Mother of the Camp’, was the “climactic point of feminine power” in Ancient Rome. In addition to being highly protective of the Emperor, she was also a prudent and intelligent ruler, maintaining good relations with the advisory council, the Senate, and with the Christian community. She did, apparently, argue with Alexander Severus’ empress, Sallustia Barbia Orbiata, whom he married in A.D. 225, and whose father, Seius Herennius, was later executed for plotting against the Emperor. In the wake of that event, the young empress was exiled and Alexander Severus was left with his mother to rule alone, with help from advisors like Cassius Dio.

Though Alexander’s reign appeared to be a sort of Golden Age of peace and prosperity for a time, there were issues that arose. Official supervision of trade and industry grew steadily, and the coinage was debased. State subsidies of education and tax rebates for guilds and property owners contributed to a financial crisis.

It also seems that Julia Mamaea had developed a paranoia when it came to protecting her son and, as a result of this, she amassed a fortune in gold and riches, some of which was taken by legal means (or otherwise) from wealthy landowners and aristocrats. She appears to have been obsessed with gold, which she hoarded, but also used to keep the Praetorians paid.

Alexander blamed his mother for her excessive love of money and was annoyed by her relentless pursuit of gold. For a time she pretended to be gathering funds to enable Alexander to gratify the praetorians readily and generously, but in truth she was hoarding it for herself. And her miserliness in some measure reflected discredit upon his reign, even though he personally opposed it and was angry when she confiscated anyone’s property and inheritance illegally.

(Herodian, The Roman History, VI 1.8)

Throughout the history of Imperial Rome, the Praetorian Guard was often a danger to those in power, even though they were intended to protect the emperors.

When Septimius Severus became sole emperor after the civil war, one of his first acts was to punish the Praetorians for auctioning off the throne after the death of Commodus. He then replaced the Praetorians with loyal men from his own legions. Notwithstanding that Severus had wrongly trusted his kinsman, Gaius Fulvius Plautianus, as sole Praetorian Prefect, he had known that the Guard needed to be controlled.

However, by the time of Alexander Severus’ reign, the Praetorians had regained much of their lost power. After they had slain Elagabalus and acclaimed Alexander Severus as Emperor, in A.D. 223 they slew Domitius Ulpianus, the Praetorian Prefect.

Ulpianus, a lawyer and protege of Papinianus, the former Praetorian Prefect under Severus and Caracalla, was appointed to the prefecture by Alexander Severus. However, the Praetorians did not respect him. He was a lawyer, not a soldier, and so they slew him.

19th-century statue of Ulpian in the neoclassical Palais de Justice in Brussels, Belgium (Wikimedia Commons)

Around this time, according to Cassius Dio, the Praetorians also clashed with the Roman people for three days of fighting with many losing their lives. When the Praetorians began to lose, they began setting parts of the city on fire. A truce was reached, for fear of the city burning down.

Cassius Dio, who was made consul for the second time by Alexander Severus in A.D. 229, was also at odds with the Praetorians who had threatened his life such that the Emperor, who valued Dio’s council and friendship, insisted that Dio live away from Rome for his own safety, in Campania. It is at around this time, when The Hearts of Heroes takes place, that Cassius Dio ends his history and removes himself from public service, not only due to his ailing health, but also because of the threat posed by the Praetorians.

17th Century Illustration of Cassius Dio

It was now that Alexander Severus was to face his greatest threat: War.

In the year A.D. 231, Alexander Severus received dispatches from the Roman governors of Syria and Mesopotamia that a new Persian king by the name of Artaxerxes (Ardashir I) had killed the client Parthian king, Artabanus, and was now crossing the borders of the Roman Empire.

Alexander Severus wrote to Artaxerxes to warn him to stay within his own borders or else face defeat as he had at the hands of Septimius Severus and others.

Gold dinar of Artaxerxes (Ardashir I, c. A.D. 230)

But Artaxerxes ignored Alexander’s efforts; believing that the matter would be settled by arms, not by words, he took the field, pillaging and looting all the Roman provinces. He overran and plundered Mesopotamia, trampling it under the hoofs of his horses. He laid siege to the Roman garrison camps on the banks of the rivers, the camps which defended the empire. Rash by nature and elated by successes beyond his expectations, Artaxerxes was convinced that he could surmount every obstacle in his path.

(Herodian, The Roman History, VI 2.5)

Alexander had no choice but to go east to meet the enemy. With his massive army divided into three as they marched against the Persians, attacking them in different regions so that Artaxerxes had to hurry his men from one sector to another to meet them.

It might have been a good strategy had the Roman forces been in a better state of preparedness for the terrain and better disciplined. However, they were all but defeated.

All three Roman armies had been ordered to invade the enemy’s territory, and a final rendezvous had been selected to which they were to bring their booty and prisoners. But Alexander failed them: he did not bring his army or come himself into barbarian territory, either because he was afraid to risk his life for the Roman empire or because his mother’s feminine fears or excessive mother love restrained him.

She blocked his efforts at courage by persuading him that he should let others risk their lives for him, but that he should not personally fight in battle. It was this reluctance of his which led to the destruction of the advancing Roman army. The king attacked it unexpectedly with his entire force and trapped the Romans like fish in a net; firing their arrows from all sides at the encircled soldiers, the Persians massacred the whole army. The outnumbered Romans were unable to stem the attack of the Persian horde; they used their shields to protect those parts of their bodies exposed to the Persian arrows.

Content merely to protect themselves, they offered no resistance. As a result, all the Romans were driven into one spot, where they made a wall of their shields and fought like an army under siege. Hit and wounded from every side, they held out bravely as long as they could, but in the end all were killed. The Romans suffered a staggering disaster; it is not easy to recall another like it, one in which a great army was destroyed, an army inferior in strength and determination to none of the armies of old. The successful outcome of these important events encouraged the Persian king to anticipate better things in the future.

(Herodian, The Roman History, VI 5.8-5.10)

Map of Roman Empire during Roman-Persian War under Alexander Severus A.D. 230-233 (Omni Atlas)

Though it was not a total defeat of the Romans, the events could be considered a complete failure on the part of Alexander Severus, for in shunning the battlefield – either by his own cowardice, or because of his mother’s over-protectiveness – the Emperor had lost the respect of the army.

As it turned out, he fell far short of his great uncle, Septimius Severus, who had begun the dynasty and who had conquered the east and the Parthians so decisively.

Alexander, Julia Mamaea, and his retinue returned to Antioch to recuperate. They tried to console the troops with lavish distributions of money to try and regain their good will, but it was to no avail. Even though Artaxerxes was withdrawing for the moment, the damage was done.

Then, in A.D. 233, messages arrived from the governors in Illyria that the German tribes had crossed the Rhine and Danube frontiers and were plundering Roman territories. The governors insisted that the Emperor bring his armies to meet the threat immediately.

Although he loathed the idea, Alexander glumly announced his departure for Illyria. Necessity compelled him to go, however; and so, leaving behind a force which he considered strong enough to defend the Roman frontiers, after he had seen to the forts and the walls of the camps with greater care and had assigned to each fort its normal complement of troops, the emperor marched out against the Germans with the rest of his army.

(Herodian, The Roman History, VI 7.5)

However, when he finally arrived, rather than meet the Germans in battle, Emperor Alexander Severus sent an embassy to the Germans with a peace settlement. Herodian tells us that “the avaricious Germans are susceptible to bribes and always ready to sell peace to the Romans for gold.”

Consequently, Alexander undertook to buy a truce rather than risk the hazards of war.

The soldiers, however, were not pleased by his action, for the time was passing without profit to them, and Alexander was doing nothing courageous or energetic about the war; on the contrary, when it was essential that he march out and punish the Germans for their insults, he spent the time in chariot racing and luxurious living.

(Herodian, The Roman History, VI 7.9-7.10)

Roman Aurea

Was Alexander Severus truly terrified of battle? Was his mother, Julia Mamaea, so fearful of losing him that she prevented him from fighting? Whatever the reason, the troops were no longer loyal to their emperor who had fallen short of all expectation.

In the end, while on the German frontier at Mogontiacum (Mainz), the men of the legions decided to back one of their own, a decorated legionary by the name of Maximinus. They robed him in imperial purple and declared him ‘Emperor’. Alexander Severus’ troops abandoned him. Herodian describes his end:

Trembling with fear, Alexander was scarcely able to retire to his quarters. Clinging to his mother and, as they say, complaining and lamenting that she was to blame for his death, he awaited his executioner. After being saluted as emperor by the entire army, Maximinus sent a tribune and several centurions to kill Alexander and his mother, together with any of his followers who opposed them.

When these men came to the emperor’s quarters, they rushed in and killed him with his mother; they also cut down those whom he had honored or who appeared to be his friends. Some, however, managed to flee or to hide for the moment, but Maximinus soon rounded up these fugitives and put them to death.

Such was the fate suffered by Alexander and his mother after he had ruled fourteen years without blame or bloodshed so far as it affected his subjects. A stranger to savagery, murder, and illegality, he was noted for his benevolence and good deeds. It is therefore entirely possible that the reign of Alexander might have won renown for its perfection had not his mother’s petty avarice brought disgrace upon him.

(Herodian, The Roman History, VI 9.6-9.8)

Maximinus Thrax – The Legionary Emperor (reigned A.D. 235-238)

In A.D. 235 Alexander Severus and his mother, Julia Mamaea, were slain by the men of the legions whose loyalty had been lost. The Severan dynasty was at an end. What had, at first, been the start of a period of hope, a new ‘golden age’, had turned into a titanic disappointment with a tragic, but not unexpected, finale.

Maximinus Thrax (A.D. 235-238), a Thracian, became the first legionary to be Emperor but he was a soldier, and not up to the politics of the role. He was tyrannical and prone to cruelty. He ignored Rome from the outset and the Senate turned on him, electing Gordian I to replace him. When he marched on Italy and was besieging Aquilea, Maximinus’ troops turned on him and murdered him and his son. Like Macrinus, he was just another upstart left for dead in the dust of the Empire.

Aerial view of the ruins of Leptis Magna – North African home of Septimius Severus who founded the dynasty

And so we come to the end of our time with the Severans, in fiction, and in history. It has been a fascinating journey getting to know this family at the peak of Rome’s might.

The Severan period is marked by several things, including a strong military with the successful completion of major campaigns that extended the Empire’s territory to its greatest extent, especially the Parthian campaign of Septimius Severus. The period saw curbed Praetorian power (at least at the outset) and, conversely, one of the most brutal Praetorian Prefects in Gaius Fulvius Plautianus. It was a period that saw some of the strongest, most powerful and intelligent women in the history of Ancient Rome in Empress Julia Domna, Julia Maesa, and Julia Mamaea.

The dynasty might have lasted longer, and Septimius Severus’ hard work not been lost, had it not been for the weakness of his heirs: his son’s Caracalla and Geta, and his great-nephews Elagabalus and Alexander Severus.

Silver Denarius of Alexander Severus (A.D. 222-235)

Was Alexander Severus’ end brought about by his cowardice, his mother’s avarice for wealth, or her deep fears for her son’s safety which manifested in an overprotectiveness that did more harm than good? Or is power at such lofty heights so precarious that one slip can send one over the cliff?

It seems like there is merit in all of the reasons given above. Just as with the fall of the Roman Empire, there is not one cause alone for its end, but rather a series of events and failures that led to its demise.

Perhaps the Severan dynasty is Rome’s end in microcosm. As Edward Gibbon wrote:

The contemporaries of Severus, in the enjoyment of the peace and glory of his reign, forgave the cruelties by which it had been introduced. Posterity, who experienced the fatal effects of his maxims and example, justly considered him as the principal author of the decline of the Roman Empire.

(Edward Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, X, vol.1)

In the end, it seems that, despite the foundations of a dynasty laid by Septimius Severus, none of his heirs were up the task of treading the tightrope between strong and judicious rule and tyranny.

This period in Rome’s history was certainly not perfect, but it has much to teach us, including the lesson that, just as with empires, families too rise and fall…

Thank you for reading.

That concludes our blog series on The World of The Hearts of Heroes. We sincerely hope that you enjoyed it and found it informative. If you have missed any of the articles in this seven-part series, you can read them all on one page by CLICKING HERE.

If you are interested in reading the two main sources for this period, you can read Cassius Dio’s text in translation by CLICKING HERE, and Herodian’s text HERE.

If you would like to read more about the Severan dynasty and their period in Rome’s history, we urge you to explore the articles in the ‘Article Archive’ on the Eagles and Dragons Publishing website. We also highly recommend the book The Severans: The Changed Roman Empire by eminent historian, Michael Grant as a very accessible read that explores this period of immense change in the history of Rome.

The Hearts of Heroes: A Novel of the Roman Empire is available ebook, paperback and deluxe hardcover editions from all major online retailers, independent bookstores, brick and mortar chains, and your local public library.

CLICK HERE to buy a copy and get ISBN#s for the edition of your choice.

If you are new to the Eagles and Dragons historical fantasy series, you can start your epic adventure with the award-winning, #1 bestselling prequel, A Dragon among the Eagles which is set during the Parthian campaigns of Emperor Septimius Severus.

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The World of The Hearts of Heroes – Part VI – A Temple for Mary: The First Church at Glastonbury

Greetings Readers and History-Lovers!

Welcome back to The World of The Hearts of Heroes!

If you missed Part V in the this blog series about the Romans on the Isle of Anglesey, you can read that article HERE.

Today, in Part VI, we are heading through the mists of time to what was known to the ancient Britons as Ynis Wytrin, that is, today’s Glastonbury. There, we will explore the foundation of what is believed to be the very first church in Britain. Join us as we explore the history behind The Lady Chapel at Glastonbury Abbey…

Calvary, attributed to Master of the Death of Saint Nicholas of Münster, c. 1470-1480

For in whom have all the nations believed, but in Christ? — Parthians, Medes, Elamites; the inhabitants of Mesopotamia, Armenia, Phrygia, Cappadocia; the dwellers in Pontus and Asia, and Pamphylia; tarriers in Egypt and the region of Africa beyond Cyrene; Romans and Jews; and the regions of the Britons, which were inaccessible to the Romans, but are subject to Christ.

(Tertullian of Carthage, Adversus Judaeos, VII, c. A.D. 197)

The quote above is one of the earliest recorded mentions of Christianity coming to Britain. What it does not tell us, however, is how truly important this coming of Christianity to that far-off island at the edge of Rome’s empire truly was. It is a tale that is steeped in myth and legend that has deep roots in the Matter of Britain and the foundations of the Christian faith in that ancient isle.

Readers of the Eagles and Dragons series will know what a central role Ynis Wytrin plays in the story. It is also a place that has played a central role in my own life and academic study of Arthuriana, for I lived and wrote there for some years, wandered the pathways beside ancient oaks and yews, climbed up the slopes of the Tor and Wearyall Hill, and sat in quiet contemplation beside the Chalice Well.

I also spent many a day on the grounds of Glastonbury Abbey, gazing up at the soaring and majestic ruins of what was once the second largest abbey in all of Britain. But Glastonbury Abbey is not just another assemblage of ruins bearing the scars of Henry VIII’s rage. It is much more than that.

Long before the great stone abbey was erected by the Normans, this was the site of the very first Christian settlement in the British Isles, and the very first Christian temple or ‘church’. It was built and dedicated by none other than Joseph of Arimathea in honour of St. Mary, the Virgin Mother of Christ.

When the even was come, there came a rich man of Arimathaea, named Joseph, who also himself was Jesus’ disciple: He went to Pilate, and begged the body of Jesus. Then Pilate commanded the body to be delivered. And when Joseph had taken the body, he wrapped it in a clean linen cloth, And laid it in his own new tomb, which he had hewn out in the rock: and he rolled a great stone to the door of the sepulchre, and departed…

(Matthew, Gospel of Matthew, 27:57-60)

Joseph of Arimathea

Joseph of Arimathea, an older disciple of Jesus (believed by some to actually be Christ’s uncle) became, over time, central to the story of the coming of Christianity to Britain and even stories of the Holy Grail, which he is said to have brought with him. According to tradition, Joseph and twelve followers built a wattle church on the site on land he was given by the local king, Arviragus (possible ruler of South Cadbury Castle at the time) around the middle of the first century A.D., at the end of the reign of Emperor Tiberius (A.D. 14-37).

Meanwhile, to an island numb and chill with ice and far removed, as in a remote nook of the world, from the visible sun, Christ made a present of his rays (that is, his precepts), Christ the true sun, which shows its dazzling brilliance to the entire earth, not from the temporal firmament merely, but from the highest citadel of heaven, that goes beyond all time. This happened first, as we know, in the last years of emperor Tiberius, at a time when Christ’s religion was being propagated without hindrance…

(Gildas, De Excidio Britanniae, I, VIII, c. A.D. 540)

Wearyall Hill and the Holy Thorn. Joseph and his followers are said to arrived at a dock at the foot of this hill. He planted his staff into the ground and it took root, becoming the Holy Thorn.

Having been granted land by the local king, Arviragus, Joseph and his followers are believed to have built a temple dedicated to the Virgin Mary, Christ’s mother, on the site. Before the ‘Lady Chapel’, as it was later called, this sacred yet humble place of worship was known as the ‘Old Church of St. Mary’.

The first church, dedicated to St. Mary by Joseph and his followers, was a simple wattle and daub structure with a well (later named ‘St. Joseph’s Well’), and a small cemetery beside it. Here, the new Christianity lived in peace and harmony beside the pagan Britons who had already lived in and revered Ynis Wytrin for generations.

17th century artist impression of the original wattle church built by Joseph of Arimathea and his followers at Ynis Wytrin.

Then desiring that the word of Christ should be yet further spread abroad, he chose twelve of his disciples and sent them to Britain to proclaim the word of life and preach the Incarnation of Jesus Christ, and on each of them he devoutly laid his right hand; and over them he appointed, it is said, his dearest friend, Joseph of Arimathea who had buried the Lord. They arrived in Britain in the sixty-third year from the Incarnation of the Lord, and the fifteenth from the Assumption of the Blessed Mary, and preached the faith of Christ with all confidence.’

The king gave them an island on the borders of his country, surrounded by woods and thickets and marshes, called Ynis Wytrin. Two other kings in succession, though pagans, granted to each of them a portion of land: hence the Twelve Hides have their name to the present day. These saints were admonished by the archangel Gabriel to build a church in honour of the Blessed Virgin. They made it of twisted wattles, in the thirty-first year after the Lord’s Passion and the fifteenth after the Assumption of the glorious Virgin. Since it was the first in that land, the Son of God honoured it by dedicating it to His Mother.

(William of Malmesbury, On the Antiquity of Glastonbury, c. A.D. 1129)

“These all continued with one accord in prayer… with Mary the mother of Jesus.”, Acts 1:14
Coronation of the Virgin, by Fra Angelico, ca. 1432

In the second century A.D. (c. A.D. 166), over one hundred years after the first wattle church had been built by Joseph of Arimathea and his followers, a new church was built by two Christian missionaries who were sent by Pope Eleutherius at the request of a British king named ‘Lucius’ (not the Lucius of the Eagles and Dragons series) who wished to be made a Christian.

The two men whom the Pope sent were named Phagan and Deruvian, and they rebuilt the original, aging wattle church, and this became what is known as the ‘Old Church of St. Mary’.

Digital reconstruction of the ‘Old Church’ (Centre for the Study of Christianity & Culture, University of York)

There came, then, these two holy men, Phagan and Deruvian, and preached the word in Britain in A.D. 166. When they came to the Isle of Avalon [Ynis Wytrin] they found the church, ‘built, as it is said, by the hands of the disciples of Christ and made ready by God for the salvation of men, which afterwards the Maker of the heavens … shewed that He had consecrated to Himself and to Mary the Holy Mother of God’. This was 103 years after the coming of the disciples of St Philip. St Phagan and St Dernvian remained here nine years. ‘They found in ancient writings the whole story, how when the Apostles were dispersed throughout the world St Philip the Apostle came with a multitude of disciples to France and sent twelve of their number to preach in Britain. And these by the guidance of an angelic vision built that chapel which afterwards the Son of God dedicated in honour of His Mother; and to these twelve three kings, though pagans, granted for their sustenance twelve portions of land.’

Accordingly St Phagan and St Deruvian chose twelve of their companions and settled them on the island. They dwelt as anchorites in the very spots where the first twelve had dwelt. ‘Yet often they assembled at the Old Church (vetusta ecclesia) for the devout performance of divine worship. And just as three pagan kings had granted the island with its appendages to the first twelve disciples of Christ in days gone by, so Phagan and Deruvian sought from King Lucius that the same should be confirmed to those their twelve companions and to others who should come after them.

(William of Malmesbury, On the Antiquity of Glastonbury, c. A.D. 1129)

It is this second church of St. Mary that is present in Ynis Wytrin in the Eagles and Dragons series in the early third century A.D.

St. Joseph’s Well in the crypt of the Lady Chapel, on the site of the Old Church of St. Mary

Up until the expansion of the church in stone by the Anglo Saxons in the early 8th century, under King Ine of Wessex, it was the second church built by Phagan and Deruvian that was present throughout the 5th and 6th centuries, what is generally believed to be ‘Arthurian’ period.

In the early days of Christianity in Britain, this first chapel and the well were the predecessors of the magnificent Norman ruins of the abbey we see today. The Lady Chapel was the site of the first Marian cult in Britain, and in the words of Geoffrey Ashe “there is no rival tradition whatsoever. When all of the fantastic mists have dispersed, ‘Our Lady St. Mary of Glastonbury’ remains a time-hallowed title.”

It became a place that Christians gravitated to. Indeed, several Celtic saints are said to have come here, including St. David, St. Columba, and St. Bridget who allegedly left her ‘wallet’ and distaff there and which, after she departed, were preserved as holy relics. Most importantly, perhaps, was Ynis Wytrin’s association with St. Patrick, the Romano-British missionary who became the patron saint of Ireland, and whom some stories name as the first abbot of Glastonbury.

St Patrick preaching at Tara at St Patrick’s Cathedral, Armagh, Northern Ireland

St Germanus of Auxerre, having come to the aid of the Britons against English invaders and Pelagian heretics, on his return took Patrick with him. Presently he sent him, by order of Pope Celestine, to preach in Ireland. When his work was done, he came to Glastonbury. There he found twelve brethren living as anchorites: he gathered them into a community and became their abbot, ‘as the following writing, which he himself in his own day composed, manifestly declares….

‘In the name of our Lord Jesus Christ. I Patrick, the humble servant of God, in the year of His Incarnation 430, was sent into Ireland by the most holy Pope Celestine, and by God’s grace converted the Irish to the way of truth; and, when I had established them in the Catholic faith, at length I returned to Britain, and, as I believe, by the guidance of God, who is the life and the way, I chanced upon the isle of Ynis Wytrin, wherein I found a place holy and ancient, chosen and sanctified by God in honour of Mary the pure Virgin, the Mother of God: and there I found certain brethren imbued with the rudiments of the Catholic faith, and of pious conversation, who were successors of the disciples of St. Phagan and St. Deruvian, whose names for the merit of their lives I verily believe are written in heaven…’

(William of Malmesbury, On the Antiquity of Glastonbury, c. A.D. 1129; quoting The Charter of St. Patrick)

St. Patrick’s story became a part of the fabric of Glastonbury’s mythology and, after his death, his relics, and those of another saint by the name of Indracht (thought by some to be an abbot of Iona) were preserved in two ‘pyramids’ (a sort of A-framed shrine) to either side of the high altar in the church of St. Mary.

Plan of the later Saxon church which included the ‘Old Church of St. Mary’ at the bottom, then rebuilt in stone. (from The Quest for Arthur’s Britain, ed. Geoffrey Ashe)

One cannot speak about the Old Church of St. Mary without also speaking about the ancient cemetery that sat just to the south of the chapel. These were at the heart of the early monastic settlement of Ynis Wytrin and contained many stone-lined graves. At the centre of the cemetery there were, according to Ralegh Radford who excavated the site, two large ‘pyramids’ with crosses as tall as twenty-eight feet. Most importantly there were, supposedly, two mausolea at the heart of the cemetery that are believed to have held the remains of St. Patrick and St. Indracht. Some believe that St. David may also have been buried there.

Only the most important of people would have been buried near the mausolea containing the remains of those venerated saints in the cemetery beside the church build by disciples of Christ in honour of the Virgin Mary.

This church, then, of all I know in England is the most ancient: hence its name. The place is crowded with the bodies of saints. Under the pavement, above and beneath the altars, relics are everywhere. Rightly is it called the heavenly sanctuary on earth and the depository of saints. Happy are they who dwell there! Who shall fail of heaven, with patrons such as these to plead their cause? So sacrosanct is the place that none dare profane it, none swear falsely by it. The truth of this finds its support in testimonies of every age.

(William of Malmesbury, On the Antiquity of Glastonbury, c. A.D. 1129)

Spot where Arthur and Guinevere’s bones are said to have been discovered in the ancient cemetery south of the chapel.

And here, we come to perhaps the most famous person associated with Glastonbury: King Arthur.

Let it be certain to all that it is in the graveyard of the monastery of Glastonbury, after his mortal wound on the river Camlan, that Arthur was buried, between two crosses of stone made from the ingenuity of craftsmanship. And these were raised standing highly, with letters on them which had been to proclaim that the grave of Arthur was there. And now those letters have been worn away from age. Let it be known, however, to all, that the grave of Arthur was not of marble stone. There was no grave for Arthur, except that he was placed inside an oak after it had been hollowed out, and he was buried sixteen feet deep in the earth. The grave is two parts of length, as if the two highest thirds were separated from the [lower] third. And as if it were a border between them, the third part is separated from them by the arranged bones of Arthur, which were large and sturdy. In the skull there were sixteen wounds, and each one of them had closed and hardened except one, and that one was open and large, as though it were certain that it was from that one that he had become dead. In the third part of the grave, like the two parts of the bottom, were the bones of Gwenhwyfar his wife, as they can be recognized as smaller and more feminine…

…Besides that, it was king Arthur who was the chief founder of the monastery of Glastonbury, for before the English came to the island, he had given land and earth and other goods to that monastery, which he consecrated in honour of the Blessed Virgin Mary, whom he loved more than that all the other saints, and not without cause. And because of that, he caused her image to be put on the two shoulders of his shield on the side next to him. And as it is said, in every battle and fight which he was in, he would kiss her feet in true humility and love for her…

…And in the end, Arthur was honourably buried in the oldest and most powerful monastery in the whole kingdom, as was befitting to place a man of such great fame and honour as that.

(Gerald of Wales, De Principis Instructione and Speculum Ecclesiae, c. A.D. 1216) 

17th century engraving of the ‘Arthur Cross’ discovered in the burial beside the Lady Chapel

In A.D. 1184 a fire ravaged the abbey and the monks needed to rebuild. Around the time of the fire, a Welsh bard is supposed to have revealed to King Henry II that King Arthur himself was buried within the abbey grounds.

The king passed this information on to the Abbot of Glastonbury who later ordered excavations to be carried out. In 1191, it is said that the monks found the bones of a man and a woman in a hollowed out tree trunk who were none other than Arthur, and his queen, Guinevere.

With the remains was a lead cross with the words ‘Hic Iacet Sepultus Inclitus Rex Arturius in Insula Avalonia’ which translates as ‘Here lies buried the renowned King Arthur in the Isle of Avalon’.

Plan of the full medieval abbey which included the ‘Lady Chapel’ built on the site of the ‘Old Church of St. Mary’ at the bottom, then rebuilt in stone. (from The Quest for Arthur’s Britain, ed. Geoffrey Ashe)

A lot of doubt has been cast on the monks’ discovery with many believing that it was a hoax created by the monks to boost tourism through pilgrimage. The remains were treated as relics and later moved within the abbey during the reign of Edward I in the early 13th century.

It is important to note that the archaeologist who excavated the abbey in the 1960s, Dr. Ralegh Radford, indicated that the monks’ story might not have been that far-fetched, and that there was indeed a person of great import from the correct period buried in the graveyard just south of the Lady Chapel. As with all things in Glastonbury, faith is always a part of the great equation.

And it is that faith that returns us to the original disciples who came with Joseph of Arimathea and who built that first temple or church to St. Mary.

Joseph of Arimathea beside Mary, collecting the Blood of the Crucified Christ, from La Quite de Saint Graal

Joseph carried the Grail and, through his piety and that of the faithful, invoked Our Lady so that the holy vessel would be protected and glorified…

And Joseph came, weeping, to his vessel, and knelt before it and said: ‘Lord who was born of the Virgin, by your holy pity and gentleness, and to save our obedient servant; Lord, I saw you truly both alive and dead, and saw you again, in the tower where I was imprisoned, after you had suffered the agonies of death, and you bade that, whenever I needed you, I should come before this precious vessel which held your precious blood; so truly, Lord, I beg and pray you now to guide me…

(Robert de Boron, Joseph of Arimathea, c. A.D. 1190)

Over time, and in addition to sailing to Britannia with his followers, and founding the first church dedicated to St. Mary, it was also told that Joseph of Arimathea brought with him the Holy Grail.

This is one of the main themes of Medieval Arthurian romance.

Joseph of Arimathea, the veneration of the Virgin Mary, the Holy Grail, and King Arthur and his knights were all linked, shrouding history beneath a veil of myth and legend that has inspired generations ever since.

King Arthur’s knights, gathered at the Round Table to celebrate Pentecost, see a vision of the Holy Grail – 15th-century manuscript illumination.

Before the fight and the encounter at the Castle of the Grail, the knights prayed to Our Lady to obtain victory and strength…

And in the chapel, they lifted their hands and voices toward the Virgin Mary, asking for help and guidance in their quest for the Holy Grail.

(Early Vulgate Cycle, Queste del Saint Graal, c. A.D. 1215-1230)

When it comes to Glastonbury being the mythical Isle of Avalon and the resting place of the Holy Grail and of King Arthur himself, there are myriad doubters and believers.

Did Joseph of Arimathea indeed come to Britannia after the death of Christ and found the first temple or church dedicated to the Virgin Mary? Did he bring the Holy Grail with him? Was the ‘Old Church of St. Mary’ the original Grail Chapel?

We may never know for certain. At the end of the long day, however, it really is a question of faith and what one believes.

What is certain is that for almost two thousand years, both saints and sinners, warriors and poets, tourists and faith-seekers have been drawn to that magical place where early Christians first arrived in Britannia and built a humble church to honour Mary, the mother of Christ.

The king and the knights prayed to the Virgin Mary to protect them and to aid them.

(Chrétien de Troyes – Perceval, ou le Conte du Graal, c. A.D. 1180)

Reconstruction of the later Medieval abbey at Glastonbury with the ‘Lady Chapel’ at the western end. (Glastonbury Abbey Museum)

If you would like to learn more about the other sites associated with Joseph of Arimathea, King Arthur, the Holy Grail and more in and around Glastonbury, be sure to read our popular articles Ynis Wytrin: The Place Beyond the Mists, and The Dragon’s Domus (about South Cadbury Castle, the historical Camelot)

You can also join Adam on magical walking tours of Glastonbury to visit all of the sites mentioned, as well as South Cadbury Castle, in our two highly-acclaimed videos on the Eagles and Dragons Publishing YouTube and Rumble channels:

In Insula Avalonia: A Tour of Glastonbury and the Isle of Avalon

and

Camelot: A Tour of the Ancient Hillfort of South Cadbury Castle

Stay tuned for Part VII in The World of The Hearts of Heroes when we will be looking at the reign of Emperor Alexander Severus and the end of the Severan dynasty.

Thank you for reading.

The Hearts of Heroes: A Novel of the Roman Empire is available ebook, paperback and deluxe hardcover editions from all major online retailers, independent bookstores, brick and mortar chains, and your local public library.

CLICK HERE to buy a copy and get ISBN#s for the edition of your choice.

If you are new to the Eagles and Dragons historical fantasy series, you can start your epic adventure with the award-winning, #1 bestselling prequel, A Dragon among the Eagles.

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The World of The Hearts of Heroes – Part V – Mona: Rome and the Isle of Anglesey

Greetings, Readers and History-lovers!

Welcome back to The World of The Hearts of Heroes. We hope you’ve enjoyed the blog series thus far. A lot of research goes into every Eagles and Dragons series novel, and we’re thrilled to share it with you!

If you missed Part IV on Ffos Anoddun, the Fairy Glen of Wales, you can read that article by CLICKING HERE.

In Part V, we’re taking a look at another of the important settings in The Hearts of Heroes, a place of mystery, violence, and of exile in history, and in our story.

Join us as we explore the Isle of Anglesey and Rome’s involvement on the island…

Some of the known Romano-British sites on Anglesey

The Isle of Anglesey, or Ynys Môn as it is named in Welsh, is a large island off the northwest coast of Wales. It lies just across the Menai Strait which runs between the island and the mainland for approximately 24 kms from Caernarfon to Bangor. The island itself is roughly 33×36 kms, and also includes Holy Island just off its west coast.

To the Romans, Anglesey was simply known as ‘Mona’.

Today, the Isle of Anglesey is known mainly for tourism along its beautiful coastlines. It is also known for mining. But these two things belie the violent history of the island, a history that revolves mainly around the Romans.

The people who lived on pre-Roman Mona were thought to be part of the Ordovices tribe who inhabited central and northwestern Wales, including the mountainous region of Snowdonia. That said, those living on Mona, on the other side of the Menai Strait, may have considered themselves a separate tribe.

Bryn Celli Ddu burial chamber, pre-Roman, Anglesey (Wikimedia Commons)

Pre-Roman Anglesey had sacred groves of trees, burial chambers, cairns, standing stones, and sacred wells. There was also a copper mining and metalworking industry at Parys Mountain and places such as Llyn Cerrig Bach which some believe to have been a religious centre.

Religion appears to have been important on Anglesey, and one interesting find from different parts of the island are carved stone heads dotted with small holes. These are thought to have been used in religious rituals.

Most importantly, at least to history, Anglesey is thought to have been the religious power centre of the Druids in Britain.

When Rome began its invasion of Britannia in earnest under Emperor Claudius in A.D. 43, it was only a matter of time before the legions swept north and the fighting reached the tribes of Wales, including on Anglesey.

The Roman Attack on Anglesey – by John Harris Valda (Wikimedia Commons)

On the beach stood the adverse array, a serried mass of arms and men, with women flitting between the ranks. In the style of Furies, in robes of deathly black and with dishevelled hair, they brandished their torches; while a circle of Druids, lifting their hands to heaven and showering imprecations, struck the troops with such an awe at the extraordinary spectacle that, as though their limbs were paralyzed, they exposed their bodies to wounds without an attempt at movement. Then, reassured by their general, and inciting each other never to flinch before a band of females and fanatics, they charged behind the standards, cut down all who met them, and enveloped the enemy in his own flames. The next step was to install a garrison among the conquered population, and to demolish the groves consecrated to their savage cults: for they considered it a duty to consult their deities by means of human entrails. — While he was thus occupied, the sudden revolt of the province was announced to Suetonius.

(Tacitus, Annals, Book XIV)

There were two major Roman assaults on Mona. The first, described above by Tacitus, was led by Governor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus in A.D. 60. Paulinus’ assault included the XIV Gemina Martia Victrix legion, previously stationed at Viroconium, and auxiliary units of Batavian light infantry, Batavian horse, and other cavalry units.

Despite the differences between the fragmented and warring tribes of Britain at the time, Paulinus recognized the Druids, and the British religion which they represented and administered, as something the tribes could rally around. Druid priests, though supposedly elusive and less numerous than they had been in Gaul, were a source of strength for the Britons. They even educated the children of noble British families. Earlier on, the emperors Augusts and Claudius both passed edicts against Druidism because of its seditious nature.

As the religious centre of the Druids in Britain, Anglesey became a target for the Romans who may have believed it was at the heart of the British resistance.

Aerial view of the Menai Strait where the Romans likely crossed.

During the winter, the Romans built a fleet of flat-bottomed boats which they would use to take the troops across the Menai Strait that summer while the cavalry forded in the shallows and the light Batavian troops swam. It is believed that the Roman amphibious assault was met not only by the Ordovices, but also by warriors of the Decangli and Silures tribes who were waiting on the other side.

As can be seen in the quote from Tacitus above, what appears to have caused the superstitious Roman troops even more concern were the crazy women, dressed in black, with wild hair shrieking and waving torches, and the Druids with their arms raised as they called on their gods.

But Paulinus urged his men forward, despite their fear, and they cut through the Celts in a bloody massacre after which they burned the bodies. The Romans spread across Mona, rounding up the Druid priests and prisoners and burning the sacred groves where they believed human sacrifices had taken place.

Reconstruction of a Celtic ‘nemeton’, the sort of sanctuary or ‘sacred grove’ that might have existed on Anglesey

However, before the island could be fully subdued, and before the flames had cooled, Paulinus received dispatches from the mainland informing him of a major uprising.

Boudicca of the Iceni tribe had begun a rebellion.

Boudicca led her army against the Romans; for these chanced to be without a leader, inasmuch as Paulinus, their commander, had gone on an expedition to Mona, an island near Britain. This enabled her to sack and plunder two Roman cities, and, as I have said, to wreak indescribable slaughter. Those who were taken captive by the Britons were subjected to every known form of outrage. The worst and most bestial atrocity committed by their captors was the following. They hung up naked the noblest and most distinguished women and then cut off their breasts and sewed them to their mouths, in order to make the victims appear to be eating them; afterwards they impaled the women on sharp skewers run lengthwise through the entire body. All this they did to the accompaniment of sacrifices, banquets, and wanton behaviour, not only in all their other sacred places, but particularly in the grove of Andate. This was their name for Victory, and they regarded her with most exceptional reverence.

Now it chanced that Paulinus had already brought Mona to terms, and so on learning of the disaster in Britain he at once set sail thither from Mona. However, he was not willing to risk a conflict with the barbarians immediately, as he feared their numbers and their desperation, but was inclined to postpone battle to a more convenient season. But as he grew short of food and the barbarians pressed relentlessly upon him, he was compelled, contrary to his judgment, to engage them. Boudicca, at the head of an army of about 230,000 men, rode in a chariot herself and assigned the others to their several stations. Paulinus could not extend his line the whole length of hers, for, even if the men had been drawn up only one deep, they would not have reached far enough, so inferior were they in numbers; nor, on the other hand, did he dare join battle in a single compact force, for fear of being surrounded and cut to pieces. He therefore separated his army into three divisions, in order to fight at several points at one and the same time, and he made each of the divisions so strong that it could not easily be broken through.

(Cassius Dio, The Roman History, LXII)

Artist impression of Boudicca and her daughters rallying the troops from her war chariot

We won’t go into all of the details of the Boudiccan rebellion here, suffice it to say that it was a bloody affair that saw the destruction of the Roman settlements of Camulodunum (Colchester), Verulamium (St. Alban’s), and Londinium (London).

Governor Paulinus, leaving a few cohorts behind on Mona, rushed from there to the fortress at Deva (Chester) and then marched down Watling Street with his XIVth legion men, as well as veterans of the XXth legion, including 2,500 evocati, 2,000 auxiliary infantry, and 500 cavalry. The Roman force met Boudicca’s along the Roman road…

At first, the legionaries stood motionless, keeping to the defile as a natural protection: then, when the closer advance of the enemy had enabled them to exhaust their missiles with certitude of aim, they dashed forward in a wedge-like formation. The auxiliaries charged in the same style; and the cavalry, with lances extended, broke a way through any parties of resolute men whom they encountered. The remainder took to flight, although escape was difficult, as the cordon of wagons had blocked the outlets. The troops gave no quarter even to the women: the baggage animals themselves had been speared and added to the pile of bodies. The glory won in the course of the day was remarkable, and equal to that of our older victories: for, by some accounts, little less than eighty thousand Britons fell, at a cost of some four hundred Romans killed and a not much greater number of wounded. Boudicca ended her days by poison…

(Tacitus, Annals, Book XIV)

Despite being massively outnumbered the Romans, under Paulinus’ command, were victorious. The rebellion, however, was not without cost. Something like 80,000 Roman citizens and allies were slain in a few weeks. After the victory, Suetonius Paulinus was recalled to Rome by Emperor Nero who granted him a triumph and later a consulship.

But that is not the end of the story for Mona.

Agricola – Statue at Roman Baths, Bath, England

The second Roman assault on the island of Mona came about seventeen years after the end of the Boudiccan rebellion, in the year A.D. 78, when Gnaeus Julius Agricola, an apprentice of Governor Paulinus, arrived as the new governor of the province.

This second campaign against the island was precipitated by the massacre of a Roman cavalry squadron by the Ordovices in the Snowdonia region. As the new governor, Agricola knew that he needed to make a statement and, though the campaigning season was nearly over, he decided to take decisive action.

Tacitus, who was actually Agricola’s son-in-law, describes the events:

…when Agricola arrived in the middle of summer; at a time when the Roman soldiers, supposing the expeditions of the year were concluded, were thinking of enjoying themselves without care, and the natives, of seizing the opportunity thus afforded them. Not long before his arrival, the Ordovices had cut off almost an entire corps of cavalry stationed on their frontiers; and the inhabitants of the province being thrown into a state of anxious suspense by this beginning, inasmuch as war was what they wished for, either approved of the example, or waited to discover the disposition of the new governor. The season was now far advanced, the troops dispersed through the country, and possessed with the idea of being suffered to remain inactive during the rest of the year; circumstances which tended to retard and discourage any military enterprise; so that it was generally thought most advisable to be contented with defending the suspected posts: yet Agricola determined to march out and meet the approaching danger. For this purpose, he drew together the detachments from the legions, and a small body of auxiliaries; and when he perceived that the Ordovices would not venture to descend into the plain, he led an advanced party in person to the attack, in order to inspire the rest of his troops with equal ardor. The result of the action was almost the total extirpation of the Ordovices; when Agricola, sensible that renown must be followed up, and that the future events of the war would be determined by the first success, resolved to make an attempt upon the island Mona, from the occupation of which Paullinus had been summoned by the general rebellion of Britain, as before related. The usual deficiency of an unforeseen expedition appearing in the want of transport vessels, the ability and resolution of the general were exerted to supply this defect. A select body of auxiliaries, disencumbered of their baggage, who were well acquainted with the fords, and accustomed, after the manner of their country, to direct their horses and manage their arms while swimming, were ordered suddenly to plunge into the channel; by which movement, the enemy, who expected the arrival of a fleet, and a formal invasion by sea, were struck with terror and astonishment, conceiving nothing arduous or insuperable to troops who thus advanced to the attack. They were therefore induced to sue for peace, and make a surrender of the island; an event which threw lustre on the name of Agricola, who, on the very entrance upon his province, had employed in toils and dangers that time which is usually devoted to ostentatious parade, and the compliments of office.

(Tacitus, The Life of Agricola, XVIII)

The final Roman conquest of Mona was complete.

After the Roman conquest, what did life look like for the Britons who survived and continued to inhabit the island of Mona?

Well, it seems that, apart from the distinct lack of an overt Druid presence (if any had survived, that is) life may have carried on much the same as it always had once things settled, with mining and small farmstead activities continuing under Roman military occupation. During the third and fourth centuries A.D., the Pax Romana settled on the land, across Mona and the rest of Britannia. A distinct Romano-British culture began to form.

Today, though there are Roman sites scattered all over mainland Wales, it is not so on the Isle of Anglesey. Archaeological excavations to date have revealed just a few sites.

Remains of Roman fortlet walls at Caer Gybi

At Caer Gybi, near Holyhead on Holy Island, the largest modern settlement on Anglesey, there was a Roman fortlet on a natural harbour there which was built c. A.D. 300. It had 4 m high walls and three circular towers, and measured about two-hundred and thirty by one-hundred and fifty feet. This may have been a base for Roman war ships and the construction coincides with the time of the Saxon Shore forts in the south of Britannia.

At Caer y Twr, on Holyhead Mountain, which was the highest point on Holy Island, there are the remains of a Roman signal station which, logically, served the fortlet and port at Caer Gybi.

Caer y Twr – Remains of the Roman watchtower on Holyhead Mountain

Another possible Roman sea port and fortlet is thought to have been located at Aberffraw in the southwest corner of Anglesey. This site dates to the first century A.D. and archaeology indicates two phases of occupation which may coincide with the two Roman assaults on Anglesey. There were ditches and Roman defences, but most of the remains are beneath the modern village. Roman pottery has also been found on the site.

Apart from these three sites, there are no other known Roman military sites on Anglesey. The island was, relatively speaking, not that large, and it was already served – or, overseen – by the cohort of five hundred men of the Cohors I Sunicorum stationed at Segontium on the other side of the Menai Strait at what is now Caernarfon. The garrison at Segontium was responsible for the security and defence of north Wales, especially against Irish raiders during the Pax Romana.

Artist impression of the fort of Segontium from the east, c. 250 A.D. (J. Banbury)

There is a bit more in the way of Romano-British remains on Anglesey. This hints at the life of the Ordovices who carried on with their lives during the period of Roman peace.

On the northeast coast of Anglesey, the fourth century A.D. settlement of Din Lligwy, whose occupation went back to the pre-Roman Iron Age, continued to be in use. This was a walled settlement on a low hill with good views all around. There are the remains of round and rectangular huts and a great deal of Roman pottery has been found on the site, as well as the remains of iron smelting and smithing activities which appear to have used coal from the mainland of Britannia. In addition to the smelting activities, farming was also carried out here.

Foundations of roundhouse:hut at Din Lligwy, Anglesey

On the southeast coast of Anglesey, not far from the magnificent Medieval castle of Beaumaris, is the ancient hillfort of Din Sylwy, also known as Bwrdd Arthur, or ‘Arthur’s Table’. This Iron Age hillfort was occupied by the Ordovices long before the Romans came and played, it is supposed, a role in the Roman assaults on Anglesey. It has an area of about seven hectares and was surrounded by a limestone wall with two gates or entrances.

What is interesting about Din Sylwy is it’s association with the legendary British freedom fighter, ’Arthur’, whom we have come to know as ‘King Arthur’. Local lore has it that Arthur met at this roughly round site with his men, or that he had fought there.

Din Sylwy – Bwrdd Arthur (‘Arthur’s Table’)

A large Romano-British settlement known as Ty-Mawr was located at Holyhead on Holy Island, below the Roman signal station at Caer y Twr. This site contained the remains of about twenty circular Iron Age huts, though there may have been as many as fifty. It is one of the best preserved hut groups in all of Wales and was occupied into the third and fourth centuries A.D. Some of the huts or roundhouses may have been as much as ten meters wide. Finds at Ty-Mawr included items of daily life such as quern stones for grinding grain, spindles, mortars, pottery, and coins. Also found there was copper from the mines at Parys Mountain on Anglesey.

Foundations of Celtic Iron Age huts:roundhouses at Ty-Mawr

Lastly, we have the copper mines at Parys Mountain, or ‘Trysclwyn’ as it was originally known.

These mines are thought to have been in use for up to four thousand years and been of great import to the British Bronze Age. Some even suppose that the mining operations at Parys Mountain may have helped to finance the Druids and their resistance to the Roman invasion.

Parys Mountain Mines, Isle of Anglesey

After the Roman invasion, the copper mines at Parys Mountain continued to be used with the copper being shipped to smaller villages on Anglesey where it was smelted before being transported to ports such as Aberffraw to go to the mainland. One Roman-era copper ingot or ‘cake’ was found stamped with ‘SOCIO-ROMAE-NATSOL’, presumed to be an official stamp of the Roman copper trade on Mona.

If the Romans remained interested in Mona after the invasion, the copper mines were no doubt one of the main reasons.

Roman-era copper ingot or ‘cake’ with official stamp of the Roman copper trade on Mona.

In The Hearts of Heroes, the Isle of Anglesey, Roman Mona, provides the setting for some of the story which takes place in the year A.D. 229. At this time, the fortress at Segontium would have been there for almost two hundred years, the Ordovices would have recovered from the violence of Rome’s initial assaults on the island, and life would have settled into the Pax Romana.

This was a cycle that was common throughout the history of Rome as it expanded, violent beginnings leading to periods of peace and prosperity.

Traeth Bychan – ‘The Traeth’, site of homestead of Killian in The Hearts of Heroes

The people of Mona, however, like the rest of Britannia, were left to their own devices when Rome, under Emperor Honorius, pulled out of the province in the fourth century. The people of Mona continued to mine and to farm, but they were also faced with an increase in Irish raids without the protection of Rome.

It was not until the arrival of Cunedda ap Edern, Lord of the Gododdin, the descendants of the Votadini, that the Irish were driven out for good.

And so, the history of Anglesey continued in a cycle of blood and peace, its ebb and flow like the sparkling sea that surrounded it.

Thank you for reading.

We hope you’ve enjoyed this article about Rome and the Isle of Anglesey.

Tune in for Part VI in The World of The Hearts of Heroes when we will be looking at the the famed Lady Chapel of Glastonbury Abbey.

The Hearts of Heroes: A Novel of the Roman Empire is available ebook, paperback and deluxe hardcover editions from all major online retailers, independent bookstores, brick and mortar chains, and your local public library.

CLICK HERE to buy a copy and get ISBN#s for the edition of your choice.

If you are new to the Eagles and Dragons historical fantasy series, you can start your epic adventure with the award-winning, #1 bestselling prequel, A Dragon among the Eagles.

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The World of The Hearts of Heroes – Part IV – Ffos Anoddun: The Fairy Glen of Wales

Greetings Readers and History-Lovers, and Happy New Year!

We’re back for another post in The World of The Hearts of Heroes blog series in which we look at the history, people and places that are featured in the latest Eagles and Dragons historical fantasy novel.

If you missed the previous post on the seasonal celebrations of the ancient Celts, you can read that by CLICKING HERE.

In Part IV, we’re going to be taking a brief look at a very special and mysterious place that captivated my imagination from the first moment I saw a picture of it many years ago. In fact, this remote and, some would say, ‘magical’ place, has at last ended up in one of my novels, The Hearts of Heroes.

I’m referring to the Fairy Gully near Betws-y-Coed in northern Wales, also known as ‘Ffos Anoddun’.

Be sure to read all the way to the end for a special peek at a piece from my very early days as a writer, inspired by this amazing place.

I hope you enjoy!

The Fairy Glen, Wales

The Fairy Glen near Betws-y-Coed may well be one of the most beautiful places I have ever seen. In Welsh, it is known as ‘Ffos Anoddun’, which means ‘a difficult ditch’. Of course, the literal translation does not do the place justice.

What is it exactly, and where is it located?

The Fairy Glen (we’ll refer to it as such from now on) is a natural gorge formed by the waters of the River Conwy at the eastern edge of the magnificent and rugged Snowdonia National Park, or ‘Eryri’, in northern Wales. It lies just two miles south of the village of Betws-y-Coed, which was the site of an early Celtic Christian monastery founded in the 6th century A.D., as well as a later lead mining industry.

Snowdonia (Eryri) National Park, Wales

The Fairy Glen is a beautiful, almost ethereal gully of moss-covered rocks and waterfalls along the river that is serene and atmospheric. And, as the name suggests it has long been associated with, you guessed it, fairies.

When we refer to ‘fairies’ however, at least in this context, we are not talking about the cute, minuscule, Tinkerbellesque creatures put on us by Walt Disney. As J.R.R. Tolkien insisted – and he was not a fan of Disney – there was much more to fairies that what popular films or cartoons show us:

“The realm of fairy-story is wide and deep and high and filled with many things… Faërie contains many things besides elves and fays, and besides dwarfs, witches, trolls, giants, or dragons…”

– J.R.R. Tolkien, On Fairy-Stories (1947)

Artist impression of the Tywyth Teg, the ‘Fair Folk’

British and Irish folklore and mythology are replete with traditions around fairies, ‘the good people’ as they were often called by humans. They figure largely in Welsh folklore, and the Fairy Gully near Betws-y-Coed has strong associations with fairies and sprites. These are the ‘Tywyth Teg’, or ‘Fair Folk’ of Welsh tradition.

Geoffrey Ashe, one of the great experts on the mythology of the British Isles wrote about the dangers that also surrounded the fairies and their world:

“One human name for them, ‘the good people’, was a propitiatory compliment inspired by the uneasy knowledge that they were not good, or not reliably so. They could be mischievous, and far worse than mischievous. They were apt to steal away children for breeding purposes, and leave substitutes or changelings who were stunted, strange, disturbing. When angry, they might use magical powers to inflict disease…

…Yet they could be benevolent. They might live unseen in a fireplace and help with housework, so long as the fireplace was kept clean for them. They could lend farmers wonderful cattle that yielded unending milk. If they took a liking to a child, they could bestow beauty, talent, good luck. Fairy women were known to marry mortal men and to bring them happiness. But most of the benefactions were subject to some taboo, and if this was broken, however trivially, with whatever absence of intent, all was lost.”

– Geoffrey Ashe, Mythology of the British Isles

Many of the archetypes described by Ashe above are prevalent in the collection of Welsh, mythological tales known as the Mabinogi, especially in my favourite of these, the tale of Pwyll, Prince of Dyfed.

Fairies also had kings and queens. The oldest among these was, of course, Gwyn ap Nudd, the Lord of Annwn, the Celtic otherworld, and leader of the Wild Hunt, who has sometimes made an appearance in the Eagles and Dragons series.

Artist impression of an Elven maiden from the Faery world

In Welsh folklore, the ‘Fair Folk’, the ‘Tywyth Teg’, refers to different beings, including the Ellyllon (elves), Bwbachod (house spirits), Coblynaw (mine spirits), Gwrageddannwn (lake maidens), and the Gwyllion (mountain spirits).

It is said that they have all been associated with the Fairy Glen at Betws-y-Coed where they were believed to gather at the moonlit pools, as indeed was the case at similar places across the British Isles. In fact, to this day, people still leave coins for the ‘Fair Folk’ at the Fairy Glen.

Ffos Anoddun, the Fairy Glen, near Betws-y-Coed in northern Wales

As someone who has studied Arthurian lore for many years, my favourite legend surrounding the Fairy Glen revolves around Merlin.

One more modern, local tradition tells of how Merlin sought refuge at the Fairy Glen. He is supposed to have done so in order to recover after the strain of using so much of his power to help Uther come to Ygerna at Tintagel Castle. This was, of course, the act that brought about the birth of Arthur.

Though this may be a fabricated association, what it does do is reinforce the perception of the Fairy Glen as a place of great mystery. If one thing is certain, however, it is that the Fairy Glen near Betws-y-Coed is a place that has inspired deep belief in the world beyond the veil and those who dwell there.

And who are we to say it is wrong? In studying mythology and Arthurian traditions, I’ve found that much of the time there is some basis in fact and that, to me at least, is indeed magical.

Waterfall at Ffos Anoddun, The Fairy Glen, Wales

Now for the special peek at a piece from my very early days as a writer which I mentioned at the outset. 

I had my first glimpse of the Fairy Glen one Christmas back in 1993 when I received a copy of Geoffrey Ashe’s wonderful book Mythology of the British Isles from my parents. I flipped through it immediately and came upon the picture you see below. I was inspired by this amazing place, even in black and white, and so in my mid-teens I wrote the following poem which was later published in my high-school paper.

I wrote this without any knowledge of form at the time as I was new to poetry. The following was just my younger self deeply inspired by this single image.

I hope you enjoy.

The Fairy Glen – from Geoffrey Ashe’s Mythology of the British Isles

Queen of the Fairy Gully

by: Adam Haviaras

 

There is a place

That man has not sullied,

Peace is always present

In the Fairy Gully.

 

A soft stream flows

Like sweet music to the ears,

The trees are emerald green

Their leaves shed dewy tears.

 

The moss-covered rocks

Protrude from the edge.

There the Fairy Queen sits,

The soft moss for her bed.

 

The fairy kingdom wakes

To see something afloat.

It is two young lovers

Asleep in a boat.

 

The young man and young woman

Had lately been wed.

The still fresh garlands

Under their tranquil heads.

 

Both are entwined

As pure as can be,

Love next to love

Ever so softly.

 

“Look,” said a fairy.

“The boat has hit ground.

We must send it down stream

Without making a sound.”

 

“Wait,” said the Queen.

“They pose us no threat.

I shall go see

What they dream in their heads.”

 

So down she went

To the lovers afloat.

Still laying asleep

In their small bridal boat.

 

The fairies watched

Their queen from up high,

As she placed her wee hands

On the lovers’ closed eyes.

 

“My dear Queen,” uttered one.

“Is something very wrong?”

“Yes sweet fairy.

They dream a sad song.”

 

“Their families spoke

And forbid them to wed.

Rather than obey

They picked up and then fled.”

 

“What do they wish for,” asked another,

“Within these sad dreams?”

“They wish for happiness, peace and love,

For the whole of eternity.”

 

“Help we will give

To this young couple,

By fulfilling their dreams

And freeing them of troubles.”

 

“Upon the morn,” declared the Queen,

“Take we them to the place,

To be alone under the Oak.

Untouched by all hate.”

 

The fairy Cordelia

Came forward to say,

“Dream dust shall I give them

To make sure they will stay.”

 

So the lovers dreamt dreams

And the fairies did too,

In this lush green world,

Glimmering moonlight and dew.

 

The early morning sun

Did thread its way down.

That orb shed its light

On the young lovers’ crowns.

 

The mist was thick

And the water calm,

As the fairies moved the boat

With their otherworld song.

 

“This deed shall we do,”

The Fairy Queen said.

“This couple will lie

In a warm bridal bed.”

 

The boat drifted up

To a white sandy shore,

Where a path led away

Through the Fairy world’s door.

 

Cordelia then spoke

With worry and haste,

“My Queen, how will we take them

To the ever-peaceful place?”

 

“Fear not, precious fairy.

I know what to do.

Behind that bush

There the stream flows through.”

 

“Spirits of the wood

Conduct this small boat,

Wherein lie these lovers

Who yet have some hope.”

 

The bush moved aside

And the boat moved along,

As the fairies sang again

Their ancient forest song.

 

Closer they came,

And the world all turned bright.

Water, rocks, moss and dew,

The gully flooded with light.

 

At long last there it was,

The life of this small folk.

Branching out to the sun

Was the old sacred Oak.

 

Its body was huge

And its limbs full of grace.

The leaves tell a story

Of countless lived days.

 

Down at the bottom

On the soft ground,

Grows a bed of bluebells

For the couple to sleep sound.

 

“Now,” said the Queen,

We must do what is best.

On bluebells lay we them

Before they wake from their rest.”

 

Once more the song came

With ever sweet delight.

The couple was lain

On flowers for that night.

 

“Fairies return to the wood.

We must not disturb,

These two that I wake.

We must be unheard.”

 

The fairies obeyed

The words of their Queen,

Who woke the fair couple

Upon the coming of eve.

 

The moon rose up

And the sun went down.

The couple awoke

To look all around.

 

“What beautiful place is this?”

Asked the young maid.

“I know not where we be,

But we must always stay.”

 

“Truly this is,” said the boy,

“A very peaceful place.

Never again shall we bear

Any anger or hate.”

 

Up above in the leaves

Sat the caring Queen.

A smile on her face,

A tear on her cheek.

 

“Live as one,” said the Queen.

“Be happy and free.

You will always be safe

In our green Fairy Gully.”

 

The maid and young man

Do dwell there all along.

At night, as they embrace,

They hear a comforting song.

 

And so the young lovers

Fulfill their life’s dream.

Due to the precious help

Of the loving Fairy Queen.

 

Here is the end

Of this ancient story.

New love and old song

In the green Fairy Gully.

 

END 

Thank you for reading.

We hope you’ve enjoyed this article about the Fairy Glen near Betws-y-Coed in Wales.

If you are interested in getting a copy of Geoffrey Ashe’s magnificent book, Mythology of the British Isles, you can do so by CLICKING HERE.

Tune in for Part V in The World of The Hearts of Heroes when we will be looking at the place the Romans referred to as Mona, that is, the Isle of Anglesey.

The Hearts of Heroes: A Novel of the Roman Empire is available ebook, paperback and deluxe hardcover editions from all major online retailers, independent bookstores, brick and mortar chains, and your local public library.

CLICK HERE to buy a copy and get ISBN#s for the edition of your choice.

If you are new to the Eagles and Dragons historical fantasy series, you can start your epic adventure with the award-winning, #1 bestselling prequel, A Dragon among the Eagles.

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The World of The Hearts of Heroes – Part III – Feast Days: Seasonal Celebrations of the Ancient Celts

Welcome back to The World of The Hearts of Heroes! 

We hope that you’ve enjoyed this blog series so far. If you missed Part II on the Romano British civitas of Viroconium Cornoviorum, you can read that by CLICKING HERE.

In Part III, we’re going to take a look at the seasonal celebrations of one the most important, fascinating, and culturally rich groups in ancient Europe and the British Isles: the Celts.

As we shall see, many pagan Celtic traditions survived the coming of Rome and the subsequent conversion to Christianity. We’ll discuss classical writers’ views of the Celts, explore Celtic myth, and look at the four great festivals that continue to be celebrated to this day.

Artist impression of Celtic peoples of Europe and Britain – by Albert Kretschmer, painters and costumer to the Royal Court Theatre, Berin, and Dr. Carl Rohrbach. – Costumes of All Nations (1882)

The history and archaeology of the cultural group we call the ‘Celts’ has always been fascinating to me, not least because of its wonderful mythology, but also because of the role it plays in Arthurian legend and literature. As the Eagles and Dragons series has progressed, many fans have noted the breadcrumbs of Celtic and Arthurian images and themes emerging in the world of the Roman Empire that has dominated the series to this point.

In The Hearts of Heroes, Greco-Roman and Celtic religious beliefs have always played a large role in the story and, in this latest novel, some of the key moments take place during the important festivals of Beltane and Samhain.

There were, in fact, four major seasonal festivals celebrated by the ancient Celts, especially in the British Isles. These were Imbolc, Beltane, Lughnasadh, and Samhain.

What were these ancient festivals? What did the Celts do at that time of year, and how did they celebrate? We’ll take brief look at each of them in turn.

Gilt bronze head of Sulis Minerva from Bath. The Romano-British Goddess that combined Minerva with Sulis, Celtic Goddess of Wisdom and Decisions

Before we dive into the specifics of the festivals themselves, let’s discuss the ‘Celts’. Who were they? What set them apart, and how did so much of their culture survive?

‘Celts’, very simply put, is actually a broad term given to the ancient peoples of pagan beliefs in Europe and the British Isles from about 700 B.C. to A.D. 400. They thrived in much of Europe north of the Alps, but also moved south to the Mediterranean, sacking Rome in 387 B.C. and plundering the sanctuary of Delphi in 279 B.C. As Rome pushed back against the migrating Celts, defeating them heavily in Gaul, the last strongholds for these peoples became what we know today as Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, as well as Cornwall and Brittany.

As Rome’s legions conquered Britannia, however, Celtic culture and religion were not completely snuffed out. In fact, a unique Romano-British culture emerged that was an amalgam of the two sides, and it thrived once the Pax Romana had settled over Britannia.

Vercingetorix Throws Down his Arms at the Feet of Julius Caesar (Lionel Royer 1899)

The nation of all the Gauls is extremely devoted to superstitious rites; and on that account they who are troubled with unusually severe diseases, and they who are engaged in battles and dangers, either sacrifice men as victims, or vow that they will sacrifice them, and employ the Druids as the performers of those sacrifices; because they think that unless the life of a man be offered for the life of a man, the mind of the immortal gods can not be rendered propitious, and they have sacrifices of that kind ordained for national purposes. Others have figures of vast size, the limbs of which formed of osiers they fill with living men, which being set on fire, the men perish enveloped in the flames. They consider that the oblation of such as have been taken in theft, or in robbery, or any other offence, is more acceptable to the immortal gods; but when a supply of that class is wanting, they have recourse to the oblation of even the innocent.

(Gaius Julius Caesar, The Gallic War, Book VI, 16)

Much of what we know about the Celts comes from classical writers such as Julius Caesar (above), or references by such ancient Greek authors as Herodotus and Hecataeus of Miletus, or later Roman authors like Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, Lucan, and Cassius Dio. Some of these authors wrote about the customs and religion of the ancient Celts, but admittedly, it was more often from their point of view as a more ‘civilized’ society. Though there is still much to be gleaned from these texts, it is important to keep in mind that, as in the case of Caesar’s memoir of the conquest of Gaul, he may have sensationalized the Celtic people, the Druids, and their barbarian rituals to enhance his own actions and achievements.

History is often written by the victors, after all.

That said, classical authors are not our only source for knowledge about the Celts, not even remotely. Archaeology and material culture have been a wealth of knowledge for us, as have the rich linguistic legacies Celtic language and literature. It is the literature of early Medieval Wales and Ireland that is, perhaps, one of the greatest sources of our knowledge about the Celts, their society, religion, and mythology.

The combination of all of these sources help to point a rather vivid picture of the Celts and their beliefs, including shared themes of water rituals, head-hunting, otherworldly feasting, the religious significance of cauldrons, the sanctity of the number ‘3’ and more.

The Gundestrup cauldron is a silver vessel dated from between 200 BC and 300 AD. it’s the largest known example of European Iron Age silver work. Now in the National Museum of Denmark in Copenhagen.

When it came to religious beliefs, one might think that Christianity would have wiped out all traces of pagan Celtic beliefs.

But that is not so.

While Celtic beliefs seem to have melded nicely, post-conquest, with those of their Roman conquerors (the Goddess Epona is a perfect example of this), the subsequent Christianization of the Celts appears to have also been something of a smooth transition with Celtic monks copying and Christianizing ancient pagan tales such as the Táin Bó Cúailnge and four branches of The Mabinogi. Celtic gods also survived by donning the robes of Christian Saints.

The religion of the pagan Celtic world survived not only in the literature that was passed on, but also in the seasonal festivals of the Celts that continue to be celebrated to this day. It is through these seasonal festivals that we can glimpse the beliefs and rituals of an ancient pagan, Celtic past.

The Tuatha Dé Danann as depicted in John Duncan’s Riders of the Sidhe (1911)

All over Europe the peasants have been accustomed from time immemorial to kindle bonfires or certain days of the year, and to dance round or leap over them. Customs of this kind can be traced back on historical evidence to the Middle Ages, and their analogy to similar customs observed in antiquity goes with strong internal evidence to prove that their origin must be sought in a period long before the spread of Christianity…

…The seasons of the year when these bonfires are most commonly lit are spring and midsummer; but in some places they are kindled also at the end of autumn or during the course of the winter…

(Sir James Frazer, The Golden Bough, LXII)

Water and fire were both important aspects of the seasonal festivals of the Celts. Sir James Frazer was correct in highlighting the importance of fire in festivals. Fire was equated with the sun and was its terrestrial element symbolizing warmth and illumination, venerated for its purifying and cleansing qualities.

Like the Greeks and Romans, there were many festivals throughout the year for the Celts. The difference however was that Celtic religion, though honouring the gods, also honoured nature and the cycles of nature, perhaps in a more fulsome way that the Greeks and Romans.

The four main seasonal festivals of the Celts (Imbolc, Beltane, Lughnasadh, and Samhain), what we know about them, and how they are celebrated to this day, illustrate this…

Painting of Saint Brigid with a bowl of fire, a spindle, and a cow in St. Patrick’s Chapel, Glastonbury Abbey.

IMBOLC

The ancient festival of Imbolc was held on February 1st of ever year. It marked the beginning of Spring and was associated with the lambing season.

After a long winter during which food stores were depleted, the lambing season did not only symbolize brith and fertility in the springtime. It also meant the arrival of fresh milk after the winter shortage.

In addition to being a festival of renewal and rebirth, Imbolc was also a purification festival, similar to Lupercalia in Ancient Rome.

This Celtic festival appears to have been celebrated mostly in Ireland, though it was also celebrated in Scotland, and other areas. And some tombs across the land, such as the Mound of Hostages at Tara in Ireland are aligned to be illuminated by the sunrise on the morning of Imbolc.

The strongest association of this festival was with the Irish Goddess Brigid who, in myth, was one of the Tuatha De Danann, the supernatural race who are descended from the Goddess Danu in Irish mythology.

Brigid is one of those special figures from Irish myth who survived the Christianization of the land and culture. The Goddess Brigid joined with St. Brigid of Kildare, the mother saint of Ireland who founded the Abbey of Kildare in around A.D. 480.

The festival of Imbolc on Feburary 1st thus became the feast day of St. Brigid.

Saint Brigid’s cross, made from rushes from County Down. (Wikimedia Commons)

During the festival of Imbolc, there were certain traditions that took place, including visits to holy wells, eating special meats, holding feasts and, it is also supposed, the ritual washing of the hands, feet, and head.

The most iconic symbol of this day has become the Brigid cross which symbolized her early medieval role as the Abbess of Kildare. At Imbolc, people would weave Brigid crosses which were equilateral crosses made with rushes that were then hung above doors and windows for protection. Some traditions also saw people making a bed for Brigid in their homes on the eve of Imbolc, leaving her food and drink as well.

Artistic impression of men, women and livestock passing between sacred bonfires at Beltane.

BELTANE

In the Central Highlands of Scotland bonfires, known as the Beltane fires, were formerly kindled with great ceremony on the first of May, and the traces of human sacrifices at them were particularly clean and unequivocal. The custom of lighting the bonfires lasted in various places far into the eighteenth century…

…Like the other public worship of the Druids, the Beltane feast seems to have been performed on hills or eminences. They thought it degrading to him whose temple is the universe, to suppose that he would dwell in any house made with hands. Their sacrifices were therefore offered in the open air…where they were presented with the grandest views of nature, and were nearest the seat of warmth and order…

…After kindling the bonfire with the tein-eigin [a ‘need fire’ started by friction] the company prepared their victuals. And as soon as they had finished their meal, they amused themselves a while in singing and dancing round the fire.

(Sir James Frazer, The Golden Bough, LXII)

May 1st, or ‘May Day’, marked the beginning of the summer season, and Beltane was the Celtic fire festival that celebrated this.

This festival celebrated the leading of the herds to their summer pastures and included rituals to protect and purify people and cattle by having them pass between sacred bonfires. The ashes from these fires were then gathered and spread over crops for protection, but also to encourage growth.

Feasting and drinking and visits to holy wells were also a big part of Beltane celebrations, as were sacred flowers such as hawthorn, primrose, rowan, gorse, hazel, and marsh marigold. Flowers were placed over doorways, on animals, and on food for protection, so as not to be stolen by the fairy folk.

Queen Guinevere’s Maying, by John Collier

In addition to being a springtime festival of fertility and fire, Beltane was a liminal festival like Samhain, when the veil between the world and the spirit world was thinnest.

Into the modern era, a May Queen and Green Man were appointed during the festivities, and May Poles decorated with flowers and ribbons – a supposed symbol of fertility – were erected and danced around by young men and women crowned with flowers.

LUGHNASADH

The festival of Lughnasadh, which began on August 1st, was a sacred festival to mark the beginning of the harvest season. It took place half way between the Summer Solstice and the Autumn Equinox.

Lughnasadh, also know as Gwyl Awst in Welsh, was named after the Celtic God, Lugh, a member of the Tuatha De Danann, who was a king and master craftsmen who is associated with oaths, truth, and law or rightful kingship.

In Celtic myth, Lugh founded the festival as funeral games for a goddess – perhaps the Goddess Tailtin – who died after clearing Ireland’s plains for agriculture.

The myth and festival commemorate a sort of mourning or ‘wake’ for the end of Summer. There are parallels to the Persephone myth here, in addition the Romans’ association of Lugh with the God Mercury.

They [the Celts] worship as their divinity, Mercury in particular, and have many images of him, and regard him as the inventor of all arts, they consider him the guide of their journeys and marches, and believe him to have great influence over the acquisition of gain and mercantile transactions.

(Gaius Julius Caesar, The Gallic War, Book VI, 17)

Illustration of Lugh’s magic spear by Harold Robert Millar

In Irish myth, Lugh is the father of the hero, Cuchulainn, in the Táin Bó Cúailnge. When his son is wounded in battle, Lugh appears to help heal him:

“A single man here cometh towards us now,” cried Laeg. “But what manner of man is he?” Cuchulainn asked. “Not hard to say,” Laeg made answer. “A great, well-favoured man, then. Broad, close-shorn hair upon him, and yellow and curly his back hair. A green mantle wrapped around him. A brooch of white silver in the mantle over his breast. A kirtle of silk fit for a king, with red interweaving of ruddy gold he wears trussed up on his fair skin and reaching down to his knees. A great one-edged sword in his hand. A black shield with hard rim of silvered bronze thereon. A five-barbed spear in his hand. A pronged bye-spear beside it. Marvellous, in sooth, the feats and the sport and the play that he makes. But him no one heeds, nor gives he heed to any one. No one shows him courtesy nor does he show courtesy to any one, like as if none saw him in the camp of the four grand provinces of Erin.” “In sooth, O fosterling,” answered Cuchulainn, “it is one of my friends of fairy kin that comes to take pity upon me, because they know the great distress wherein I am now all alone against the four grand provinces of Erin on the Plunder of the Kine of Cuailnge, killing a man on the ford each day and fifty each night, for the men of Erin grant me not fair fight nor the terms of single combat from noon of each day.”

Now in this, Cuchulainn spoke truth. When the young warrior was come up to Cuchulainn he bespoke him and condoled with him or the greatness of his toil and the length of time he had passed without sleep.”This is brave of thee, O Cuchulainn,” quoth he. “It is not much, at all,” replied Cuchulainn. “But I will bring thee help,” said the young warrior. “Who then art thou?” asked Cuchulainn. “Thy father from Faery am I, even Lug son of Ethliu.” “Yea, heavy are the bloody wounds upon me; let thy healing be speedy.” “Sleep then awhile, O Cuchulainn,” said the young warrior, “thy heavy fit of sleep by Ferta in Lerga till the end of three days and three nights and I will oppose the hosts during that time.” He examined each wound so that it became clean. Then he sang him the ‘men’s low strain’ till Cuchulainn fell asleep withal. It was then Lug recited the Spell-chant of Lug.

Accordingly Cuchulainn slept his heavy fit of sleep at ‘the Gravemound on the Slopes’ till the end of three days and three nights. And well he might sleep. Yet as great as was his sleep, even so great was his weariness. For from the Monday before Samhain even to the Wednesday after Spring-beginning, Cuchulainn slept not for all that space, except for a brief snatch after mid-day, leaning against his spear, and his head on his fist, and his fist clasping his spear, and his spear on his knee, but hewing and cutting, slaying and destroying four of the five grand provinces of Erin during that time.

Then it was that the warrior from Faery [Lugh] laid plants from the fairy-rath and healing herbs and put a healing charm into the cuts and stabs, into the sores and gaping wounds of Cuchulainn, so that Cuchulainn recovered during his sleep without ever perceiving it.

(Táin Bó Cúailnge, trans. Joseph Dunn)

“Cuchulain in Battle”, illustration by J. C. Leyendecker in T. W. Rolleston’s Myths & Legends of the Celtic Race, 1911

There were many rituals involved in the festivities of Lughnasadh. These included a feast, the sacrifice of a bull, ritual dances, visits to holy wells, and the offering of ‘first fruits’ to the gods, especially bilberries.

With its possible origins as funeral games founded by Lugh, the festivities, especially in the Middle Ages, also involved athletic competitions, horse racing, mock battles with sticks, music and storytelling, trading, dispute settlement, and even match-making. A truce was also declared during the time of Lughnasadh.

SAMHAIN

…it remains to give some account of the corresponding festival of Hallowe’en [Samhain], which announced the arrival of winter.

Of the two feasts [Beltane and Samhain] Hallowe’en was perhaps of old the more important, since the Celts would seem to have dated the beginning of the year from it rather than from Beltane…

…Another circumstance of great moment which points to the same conclusion is the association of the dead with Hallowe’en. Not only among the Celts but throughout Europe, Hallowe’en, the night which marks the transition from autumn to winter, seems to have been of old the time of year when the souls of the departed were supposed to revisit their old homes in order to warm themselves by the fire and to comfort themselves with the good cheer provided for them in the kitchen or the parlour by their affectionate kinsfolk…

…But it is not only the souls of the departed who are supposed to be hovering unseen on the day “when autumn to winter resigns the pale year.” Witches then speed on their errands of mischief, some sweeping through the air on besoms, others galloping along the roads on tabby-cats, which for that evening are turned into coal-black steeds. The fairies too are all let loose, and hobgoblins of every sort roam freely about.

(Sir James Frazer, The Golden Bough, LXII)

The last and perhaps most important of the seasonal Celtic festivals, as implied by Sir James Frazer above, is Samhain, the precursor of our modern Halloween and All Souls Day.

Glastonbury Tor – One of the gateways to Annwn, the Celtic Otherworld

Samhain features large in The Hearts of Heroes as it has in other books in the Eagles and Dragons series. It is the other liminal festival of the Celtic calendar when the veil between worlds is most thin and when, as Frazer points out, the dead come to walk among the living.

Samhain, which took place on October 31st and November 1st, was a time of danger and vulnerability, a boundary time when the old year died and the new year began. It was, scholars believe, the pagan Celtic New Year in ancient times.

It was at Samhain, the official beginning of winter, that the animals, especially cattle, were brought down from their summer pastures, some for slaughter and some for breeding.

Burial mounds were opened and people paid their respects to the dead who were able to come into their world from the Otherworld because the veil was thin. Contact with the Otherworld was common in Celtic religion and, for this reason, bonfires were lit on hilltops for protection and for cleansing.

Spirits and fairies were offered food and drink to ensure the survival of the people and their livestock over the coming winter. Sir James Frazer believed that Samhain and Beltane, especially of the seasonal festivals, where particular to herding communities who practiced ‘transhumance’, the seasonal moving of livestock from summer to winter pastures.

Apples and hazelnuts were important in Samhain celebrations as well. Apples were associated with the Celtic Otherworld and immortality, and apple peels were offered to the fires. Hazelnuts were associated with divine wisdom.

And, of course, mumming and guising were a tradition at Samhain in the early modern period, this tradition being a precursor of putting on costumes at Halloween.

In Ireland, Samhain was the time when the five provinces gathered at Tara for the great assemblies. In the Táin Bó Cúailnge, it was also when the invasion of Ulster began.

Perhaps the strongest pagan association with Samhain related to the dead is the Wild Hunt which was led by Gwyn ap Nudd, the Lord of Annwn, the Celtic Otherworld.

Artist impression of Gwyn ap Nudd hunting with his otherworldly hounds.

Gwyddneu:
For thou hast given me protection;
How warmly wert thou welcomed!
The hero of hosts, from what region thou comest?

[Gwyn ap Nudd is asked which region is he from. Gwyn does not answer directly]

Gwyn ap Nudd:
I come from battle and conflict
With a shield in my hand;
Many is the broken helmet pierced by the spears.

Gwyddneu:

I will address thee, exalted man,
With his shield in distress;
Brave man, what is thy descent?

[Gwyddneu (ruler of the sunken kingdom of Cantre’r Gwaelod) now asks about Gwyn ap Nudd’s family]

Gwyn ap Nudd:
Carngrwn [Round-hoofed] is my horse, the torment of battle,
Fairy am I called, Gwyn the son of Nudd,
The lover of Creudilad, the daughter of Llud.

Gwyddneu:
Since it is thou, Gwyn, an upright man,
From thee there is no concealing;
I also am Gwydneu Garanhir.

[Gwyn ap Nudd’s horse is becoming impatient and wants to return to Tawë in Annwn]

Gwyn ap Nudd:
He will not leave me in a parley with thee,
By the bridle, as is becoming;
But will hasten away to his home on the Tawë .

It is not the nearest Tawë I speak of to thee,
But the furthest Tawë
Eagle! I will cause the furious sea to ebb.

Polished is my ring, golden my saddle and bright
To my sadness
I saw a conflict before Caer Vandwy.

Before Caer Vandwy a host I saw,
Shields were shattered and ribs broken
Renowned and splendid was he who made the assault.

Gwyddneu:
Gwyn ab Nud, the hope of armies,
Sooner would legions fall before the hoofs
Of thy horses, than broken rushes to the ground.

Gwyn:
Handsome my dog and round-bodied,
And truly the best of dogs;
Dormach was he, which belonged to Maelgwn.

Gwyddneu:
Dormach with the ruddy nose! what a gazer
Thou art upon me! because I notice
Thy wanderings on Gwibir Vynyd.

Gwyn:
I have been in the place where was killed Gwendoleu,
The son of Ceidaw, the pillar of songs,
When the ravens screamed over blood.

I have been in the place where Bran was killed,
The son of Gweryd, of far-extending fame,
When the ravens of the battle-field screamed.

I have been where Llachau was slain,
The son of Arthur, extolled in songs,
When the ravens screamed over blood.

I have been where Meurig was killed,
The son of Carreian, of honourable fame,
When the ravens screamed over flesh.

I have been where Gwallawg was killed,
The son of Goholeth, the accomplished,
The resister of Lloegyr, the son of Lleynawg.

I have been where the soldiers of Prydain

[Britain] were slain,
From the East to the North;
I am alive, they in their graves!

I have been where the soldiers of Prydain

[Britain] were slain,
From the East to the South
I am alive, they in death!

(The Dialogue of Gwyn ap Nudd and Gwyddno Garanhir, The Black Book of Carmarthen XXXIII)

The Wild Hunt (1872) by Peter Nicolai Arbo

Mainly at Samhain, but also at other liminal times of the year, Gwyn ap Nudd, the Lord of Annwn, a sort of ‘King of the Fairies’, rode out on his magical horse with his white, otherworldly hounds with white-tipped ears to lead the dead in the Wild Hunt.

In later traditions, Gwyn ap Nudd was replaced by others, including King Arthur, as leader of the Wild Hunt at Samhain. In the 19th century, there were reports that locals had seen the king’s ghost riding with his hounds at South Cadbury Castle, in Somerset.

For fans of the Eagles and Dragons series, Gwyn ap Nudd, the Lord of Annwn, is a terrifying figure who has appeared before, and will appear again…

Just as our modern New Years is today, Samhain, the New Year’s festival of the ancient Celts, was at once both a sombre and joyous celebration. As a time of great spiritual energy in the world, when gods visited men, shapeshifters and spirits roamed the land, and all manner of supernatural beings crossed the veil between worlds, Samhain was one of the most important times of year on the Celtic calendar. It was a time to honour the gods and the dead, a time of fear, but also a time of gratitude.

Thank you for reading.

We hope you’ve enjoyed this article about the seasonal festivals of the ancient Celts.

Tune in for Part IV in The World of The Hearts of Heroes when we will be visiting one of the settings in the novel, ‘The Fairy Glen’ at Betws-y-Coed on the eastern edge of the ruggedly beautiful region of Snowdonia in Wales.

The Hearts of Heroes: A Novel of the Roman Empire is available ebook, paperback and deluxe hardcover editions from all major online retailers, independent bookstores, brick and mortar chains, and your local public library.

CLICK HERE to buy a copy and get ISBN#s for the edition of your choice.

If you are new to the Eagles and Dragons historical fantasy series, you can start your epic adventure with the award-winning, #1 bestselling prequel, A Dragon among the Eagles.

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The World of The Hearts of Heroes – Part II – Viroconium Cornoviorum: Civitas of Roman Britain

Salvete readers and history-lovers!

Welcome back to The World of The Hearts of Heroes in which we are taking a brief look at the research for the seventh book in the Eagles and Dragons series set in the Roman Empire.

In Part I, we looked at the life and work of the historian, Cassius Dio, who is the main source for the Severan period. If you missed that post, you can read it by clicking HERE.

In Part II, we’re going to be taking a brief look at one of the settings in The Hearts of Heroes, the Roman civitas of Viroconium Cornoviorum, at modern Wroxeter in England.

Roman ruins at Viroconium Cornoviorum; photograph 1859 (Wikimedia Commons)

Britain is a land that is packed with Roman remains from one end to the other. There are roads, villas, baths, walls, towers, fortlets and legionary fortresses and more. And there are cities. Well, the remains of them, anyway.

In Roman Britain there were, more or less, twenty civitates, the formal administrative districts with large settlements at their heart. These evolved into cities or towns.

Viroconium Cornoviorum was, at its height, the fourth largest civitas in the province of Britannia.

Viroconium Cornoviorum (Ordnance Survey Map of Roman Britain)

I first visited Viroconium (Wroxeter Roman City), which is about five miles from Shrewsbury, in the year 2000 when doing research on archaeological sites linked to the Arthurian period of sub-Roman Britain (more on that later). I was awed by the massive remains of the great bathhouse and fascinated by the reconstructed Roman townhouse as I strolled the grounds in a quiet and sunny green field along the River Severn.

It was much quieter then than it would have been at its peak. I knew for certain that, after the research for my dissertation, the site would someday end up in one of my novels.

But how did that Roman city come to be? Why was it so important? How was it that that silent, sun-kissed field I visited near the border of England and Wales had been one of the busiest places in Roman Britain?

Roads in Roman Britain (Wikimedia Commons) – with Viroconium shown

Viroconium Cornoviorum is located on a site overlooking a ford of the River Severn. It has good views in all directions. It was located at the western terminus of Wattling Street, one of the major roads of Roman Britain which ran all the way from the port of Dubris (Dover) to southeast. It was also on the route between the legionary fortresses of Deva (Chester) to the north, and Isca (Caerleon) and Glevum (Gloucester) to the south.

Strategically and economically, this was an important location.

Viroconium Cornoviorum was located in the lands of the Cornovii tribe whose tribal capital was at a nearby hillfort known as ‘The Wrekin’. It did not, however, begin as a city. Like other civitates in Roman Britain, it had military origins.

Viroconium was first established in the early years of the Roman conquest of Britain, which began in A.D. 43 under Emperor Claudius, as a frontier outpost guarding a crossing of the River Severn. As the invasion advanced northward, Viroconium became a forty-acre legionary fortress, built between A.D. 52-57.

The first legion to build, and be based at, Viroconium was the famed XIV Gemina Martia Victrix first established by Julius Caesar in 57 B.C. This legion took part in the invasion of Britain in A.D. 43, the assault on the Isle of Anglesey in A.D. 60, and played a major role in putting down the Boudiccan Revolt in A.D. 60-61.

When the XIVth legion’s work was finished, Viroconium was garrisoned by the XX Valeria Victrix legion which had also taken part in the invasion of Britain in A.D. 43. This legion was based there from about A.D. 59-90 before it moved to quarters at the fortress of Deva (Chester).

Viroconium remained under military rule from A.D. 47 until A.D. 90.

As frequently happened, a civilian settlement, a vicus, grew up around the fortress. This settlement included canabae, which literally means ‘booths’, and this referred to the stalls where soldiers could get food, drink, and sex.

Viroconium was starting to transition into a city, a hub of activity on the burgeoning road network that was spreading out across Britannia.

Plan of the Legionary Fortress at Viroconium c. A.D. 57-90 (from

As the front lines moved farther north, and Viroconium found itself safer, it transitioned smoothly from military to civilian life. The military defences were torn down when the army left, but the grid of the fortress remained. New roads were created and extended beyond the walls to encompass the growing city. The population fluctuated, and the city grew and, eventually, it became the fourth largest city in Roman Britain with the former via Principalis of the fortress becoming the main thoroughfare and heart of the new city.

It also became an important trading centre, largely due to its location at the intersection of two major routes, and grew to cover an area of about 180 acres.

But if Viroconium covered such a vast area of land, how is it that so little can be seen today? It appears more like a country setting than a former Roman metropolis.

Archaeologists have concluded that of the 180 acres occupied by Viroconium, only about 3 of those were covered by grand public buildings and, of those, about eighty percent has been excavated.

Stages of Viroconium Cornoviorum from c. A.D. 57 to c. A.D. 500 (from Wroxeter: Life & Death of A Roman City; White and Barker) – the bottom left (c. A.D. 150-500) is Viroconium in The Hearts of Heroes.

Viroconium Cornoviorum really experienced a boom when, in A.D. 122 Emperor Hadrian visited the city and ordered the building of a massive forum, as well as baths and a basilica. Some historians believe he showed an interest in Viroconium because it was the westernmost civitas of the Empire.

The structures which Hadrian had built in Viroconium brought increased trade and activity to the city with the new forum serving as the tribal administrative centre, judiciary, and market of Viroconium Cornoviorum. This was built on the site of the former principia, the legionary headquarters building.

There was also a long colonnade built along the main road, which was Watling Street, with the great bathhouse opposite on the other side of the street. This bathhouse is in addition to the earlier, unfinished bathhouse which lay beneath part of the new forum.

As far as civilian settlement, archaeologists have discovered the remains of two later insulae, apartment-like structures, as well as a mansio which was a sort of hotel and supply station along Watling street for off duty soldiers, couriers etc.

Artist Impression of the Forum of Viroconium Cornoviorum (English Heritage)

Civilian houses have also been found in Viroconium which have narrow entrances fronting onto main streets, but which are long. These are presumed to be the houses of craftsmen and artisans with stores or workshops on the ground floor (they discovered raw materials for their trades) and family living accommodation on the upper floor.

But it is the grand public buildings that really stand out at Viroconium, and this civic centre straddled either side of Watling street. It is no wonder that it became the fourth largest civitas in Britannia, for it had a forum, baths, a basilica, a water supply, roads, the colonnade for shelter, and public temples.

The bath and basilica complex, in addition to the regular rooms of a public bath, also had a 74 meter pool and palaestra, a large exercise ground.

Artist Impression of public baths and main thoroughfare (English Heritage)

The forum, which was the first major public building built at Viroconium Cornoviorum was very large with a courtyard that was 74×64 meters surrounded by a colonnade with shops and offices on one side, and the basilica on the other side. This was the commercial, administrative, and judicial centre of the city. The forum was also home to the sacellum (shrine), the curia (council chamber), aerarium (treasury), and the tabularium (records office).

In addition to the main forum, Viroconium also had a forum boarium, a livestock market. This would have meant that livestock farmers would have come from miles around to buy and sell their stock, contributing to the economic success of the city.

When it comes to the temples and shrines, in addition to some small ones to local deities, the remains that archaeologists have discovered indicate some small scale temples to Jupiter and to Venus or Epona. There may also have been some dedicated to Vesta and Mithras.

Artist Impression of Viroconium Cornoviorum at its peak, aerial view toward the southeast (English Heritage)

Prosperity and peace lasted for well over two hundred years for the people of Viroconium Cornoviorum once the Pax Romana had settled on Britannia. But, as history tells us, most things come to an end.

In A.D. 383 when Magnus Maximus set out for Gaul with his troops to make his play for the imperial throne, the Cornovii, and Viroconium itself, may have come under attack by Picts from the north or the Irish from across the sea. Saxon invasions had also begun to the southeast until finally, in A.D. 410, Emperor Honorius supposedly wrote to the Britons to tell them to see to their own defences. Rome was leaving.

This was the start of the sub-Roman period in Britain, also commonly referred to as the ‘Dark Ages’.

The Pillar of Eliseg, Denbighshire, Wales

It was at this time that archaeology shows a strengthening of Viroconium’s defences, and an increased military presence. Viroconium Cornoviorum transitioned into the capitol of the Kingdom of Powys after Rome’s departure.

The basilica and parts of the former baths were still in use, with simpler wattle constructions built on top. There were, it is believed, some public buildings, but the grandest structure appears to have been a private residence or palace built into the former Roman structures.

Enter the ‘Arthurian’ connection.

This private residence or palace at Viroconium, once the fourth largest city in Roman Britain, was built and lived in by the new ‘tyrant’ or ruler of Powys. One very strong theory is that this man was none other than the Vortigern of Arthurian legend whose name is inscribed on the Pillar of Eliseg, just across the border in Wales.

The Pillar of Eliseg, ancient monument to the Kings of Powys, references both the Roman past and Vortigern by name:

Side by side translation of the inscription on the Pillar of Eliseg (Wikimedia Commons)

This last bit of history from Viroconium’s legendary past is what brought me to the site, but little did I know that it opened the door to an understanding of one of the greatest cities of Roman Britain.

In studying Rome, and sites like Viroconium Cornoviorum, it strikes me how fleeting the greatness of cities and civilizations can be, how longevity cannot be taken for granted. That is one of the tragic lessons the Roman Empire has to teach us.

A once great city that was filled with life and vitality, that experienced economic prosperity, and had a thriving population that enjoyed over two hundred years of peace can, in the end, be transformed back into a quiet green field beside a river.

Carpe Diem, folks. Carpe Diem.

Thank you for reading.

If you are interested in reading more about the history and archaeology of Viroconium, I highly recommend the book Wroxeter: Life & Death of a Roman City by Roger White and Philip Barker. You can get a copy of that book by CLICKING HERE.

The Hearts of Heroes: A Novel of the Roman Empire is available ebook, paperback and deluxe hardcover editions from all major online retailers, independent bookstores, brick and mortar chains, and your local public library.

CLICK HERE to buy a copy and get ISBN#s for the edition of your choice.

If you are new to the Eagles and Dragons historical fantasy series, you can start your epic adventure with the award-winning, #1 bestselling prequel, A Dragon among the Eagles.

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The World of The Hearts of Heroes – Part I – Cassius Dio: Chronicler of the Severans

Salvete, Readers and Romanophiles!

Welcome to this first post in our exciting new blog series The World of The Hearts of Heroes! In this seven-part series, we’re going to be taking a look at some of the history, people, and places that appear in, and provide the settings for, this seventh book in the award-winning, #1 bestselling, Eagles and Dragons historical fantasy series set in the Roman Empire.

If you’re a fan of the series, and don’t want any spoilers at all, then you may wish to hold off until you’ve read the book.

However, if you just want to get stuck into the history and research that went into this novel, read on! We hope you enjoy it!

17th Century Illustration of Cassius Dio

It is my desire to write a history of all the memorable achievements of the Romans, as well in time of peace as in war, so that no one, whether Roman or non-Roman, shall look in vain for any of the essential facts.

Although I have read pretty nearly everything about them that has been written by anybody, I have not included it all in my history, but only what I have seen fit to select. I trust, moreover, that if I have used a fine style, so far as the subject matter permitted, no one will on this account question the truthfulness of the narrative, as has happened in the case of some writers; for I have endeavoured to be equally exact in both these respects, so far as possible. I will begin at the point where I have obtained the clearest accounts of what is reported to have taken place in this land which we inhabit.

This land in which the city of Rome has been built.

(Cassius Dio; Roman History, Book I)

The quote above is the opening of Cassius Dio’s Roman History, the main source, and only truly contemporary one of the period of the Severan dynasty of Ancient Rome, when the Eagles and Dragons series takes place.

But who was Cassius Dio? How did he gain such a personal perspective of the Severans? Is he a reliable source for the period? How does he fit into our epic Eagles and Dragons saga?

In this article, we will explore all of these questions to try and get at some idea of the man behind the history.

Cassius Dio Cocceianus was born at Nicaea in Bithynia c. A.D. 164 (maybe A.D. 155) to a Roman father and a Greek mother. He was the son of Cassius Apronianus, a Roman senator who was the Governor of Dalmatia and Cilicia under Emperor Marcus Aurelius. Dio was also the grandson of the famous Greek orator, writer, historian and philosopher, Dio Chrysostom (c. A.D. 40-115), after whom he was named.

Growing up the son of a prominent Roman senator, Dio was no stranger to Roman politics. He was with his father when he was Governor of Dalmatia.

After his father died, Dio then went to Rome in about A.D. 180 where he became a senator under Emperor Commodus at about the age of twenty-five. This was the start of a successful political career where he subsequently became a praetor under Pertinax in A.D. 193.

But Cassius Dio really came into his own during the reign of Emperor Septimius Severus (A.D. 193-211), a ruler whom Dio clearly admired. Under Severus, Dio was made Suffect Consul in A.D. 205, and then later became Consul for a second time under Emperor Alexander Severus, the last of the Severan emperors, in A.D. 229.

Emperor Septimius Severus

Cassius Dio’s Roman History is vital to our understanding of the events of the late 2nd and early 3rd centuries in Ancient Rome. Not only is his work the main contemporary source for the period, but as one who was close to the imperial court and a first-hand observer of the events that unfolded, from the reign of Commodus and throughout the Severan period, he offers a perspective that is entirely unique.

It is Dio’s first-hand account of the period, as well as his personal observations that, though sometimes in doubt, are unique and have proved invaluable in the creation of the Eagles and Dragons series.

Truthfully, Dio’s history has been crucial to my research throughout the entire series to date. Not only that, he is also a character in some books in the series, truly coming to the fore in The Hearts of Heroes.

Cassius Dio’s Roman History is not the only work which he produced. He also wrote a biography of Arrian, who was a fellow Bithynian, as well as an account of the reign of Emperor Hadrian. Another fascinating work which he wrote was a book about the dreams of Septimius Severus whom we know placed a great deal of stock in astrology and dreams. The Roman History, however, is Dio’s greatest work without which we would actually know very little about the Severans. Herodian, whom I have also used in research for the period, is our only other source, but as he was not as close to the people about whom he was writing, Dio is preferred.

Excerpt of Cassius Dio’s Roman History from a 5th-century manuscript (Wikimedia Commons)

But what about Cassius Dio’s Roman History as a source? What did it cover?

The Roman History is made up of about eighty books which took Dio about twenty-two years to write. Most of the text survives, but other parts are in fragments. Thankfully, more complete text has come down to us by way of an eleventh century epitome (an abridgement or summary) by Xiphilinus, and the twelfth century Epitome of Historical Works by Zonoras, a private secretary of Emperor Alexis I.

In his work, Dio attempts to cover the history of Rome from the landing of Aeneas to his second consulship in A.D. 229, when The Hearts of Heroes takes place. Cassius Dio wrote in Greek, in the Atticist tradition of ancient historians such as Thucydides.

The Roman History, which covers roughly a thousand years, can be divided into three sections: 1) the Republic, 2) the establishment of the Principate (monarchy) until the death of Marcus Aurelius, and 3) the period of Dio’s own life from the ascent of Commodus.

For the periods before his own, it is believed that Dio may have relied heavily upon the works of Livy, but also other historians of Rome such as Pliny the Elder, Tacitus, Caesar’s own commentaries and others. He may also have done more research by delving into the records of Rome, as is evidenced by his naming of minor magistrates.

The Emperor Commodus Leaving the Arena at the Head of the Gladiators (by Edwin Howland Blashfield)

For the period covering his own life, there is a sense from Dio of a falling from greatness during Commodus’ reign, leading to hope at the arrival of Septimius Severus. After Severus, there is certainly a returned sense of decline, and this period, from the reign of Caracalla on, could be considered the true beginning of the end of the Roman Empire.

The details of Dio’s own life can be gleaned from casual statements in his history and, when it comes to the period of Rome’s history in which he lived, his observations are based personal experience and not hearsay. He knew most of the people about whom he was writing, and that is what makes his work such a valuable source from the reign of Commodus, when he became a senator, right through to the last Severan, Alexander Severus, under whom he held his second consulship.

This man [Commodus] was not naturally wicked, but, on the contrary, as guileless as any man that ever lived. His great simplicity, however, together with his cowardice, made him the slave of his companions, and it was through them that he at first, out of ignorance, missed the better life and then was led on into lustful and cruel habits, which soon became second nature. And this, I think, Marcus clearly perceived beforehand. Commodus was nineteen years old when his father died, leaving him many guardians, among whom were numbered the best men of the senate. But their suggestions and counsels Commodus rejected, and after making a truce with the barbarians he rushed to Rome; for he hated all exertion and craved the comfortable life of the city.

(Cassius Dio; Roman History, Book LXXIII)

Portrait of the Severan family with Geta’s face erased.

Cassius Dio began writing his history during the reign of Septimius Severus. The fact that he wrote a book about the dreams and omens of Severus makes scholars think he had a great deal of personal interaction with the Emperor. After receiving praise from the Emperor and the public, he undertook the larger Roman History.

With Septimius Severus’ accession to the imperial throne, Cassius Dio’s tone in the history appears hopeful, almost as if he was seeing a new, golden era for Rome. It was clear that Dio admired Severus…

The following is the manner of life that Severus followed in time of peace. He was sure to be doing something before dawn, and afterwards he would take a walk, telling and hearing of the interests of the empire. Then he would hold court, unless there were some great festival. Moreover, he used to do this most excellently; for he allowed the litigants plenty of time and he gave us, his advisers, full liberty to speak. He used to hear cases until noon; then he would ride, so far as his strength permitted, and afterward take some kind of gymnastic exercise and a bath. He then ate a plenti­ful luncheon, either by himself or with his sons. Next, he generally took a nap. Then he rose, attended to his remaining duties, and afterwards, when walking about, engaged in discussion in both Greek and Latin. Then, toward evening, he would bathe again and dine with his associates; for he very rarely invited any guest to dinner, and only on days when it was quite unavoidable did he arrange expensive banquets. He lived sixty-five years, nine months, and twenty-five days, for he was born on the eleventh of April. Of this period he had ruled for seventeen years, eight months, and three days. In fine, he showed himself so active that even when expiring he gasped: “Come, give it here, if we have anything to do.”

(Cassius Dio; Roman History, Book LXXVII)

Emperor Caracalla

When one considers the rulers whom Cassius Dio lived and worked under – Commodus, Severus, Caracalla, Macrinus, Elagabalus, and Alexander Severus – you would not be wrong to assume he was quite politically astute, and that he was a survivor. Despite the golden and hopeful period of Severus’ reign, it was a time of terror for many. Here, Dio describes the fear they felt at Commodus’ reign, when the Emperor made them watch him as a gladiator:

This fear was shared by all, by us senators as well as by the rest. And here is another thing that he did to us senators which gave us every reason to look for our death. Having killed an ostrich and cut off his head, he came up to where we were sitting, holding the head in his left hand and in his right hand raising aloft his bloody sword; and though he spoke not a word, yet he wagged his head with a grin, indicating that he would treat us in the same way. And many would indeed have perished by the sword on the spot, for laughing at him (for it was laughter rather than indignation that overcame us), if I had not chewed some laurel leaves, which I got from my garland, myself, and persuaded the others who were sitting near me to do the same, so that in the steady movement of our armies we might conceal the fact that we were laughing.

(Cassius Dio; Roman History, Book LXXIII)

Later, after the murder of Caracalla by Macrinus and the Praetorians, Dio carried on surviving and was made curator ad corrigendum statum civitatum of Pergamun and Smyrna by Macrinus, a role which he carried on in under the insane Elagabalus. When Alexander Severus came to the throne, Dio was made Proconsul of Africa and then Governor of Dalmatia and Upper Pannonia.

Unfortunately, the final book of Dio’s Roman History is fragmented. Little is said of the reign of the young Alexander Severus (he was just fourteen when his grandmother, Julia Maesa, and his mother, Julia Mamaea, put him on the throne). What we know comes from the sixth book of Herodian’s History of the Roman Empire from the death of Marcus Aurelius in A.D. 180 to A.D. 238. At the end of his Roman History, Dio appears rushed, even stating that:

Thus far I have described events with as great accuracy as I could in every case, but for subsequent events I have not found it possible to give an accurate account, for the reason that I did not spend much time in Rome. For, after going from Asia into Bithynia, I fell sick, and from there I hastened to my province of Africa; then, on returning to Italy I was almost immediately sent as governor first to Dalmatia and then to Upper Pannonia, and though after that I returned to Rome and to Campania, I at once set out for home. For these reasons, then, I have not been able to compile the same kind of account of subsequent events as of the earlier ones.

(Cassius Dio; Roman History, Book LXXX)

The Praetorian Guard

Though Dio had survived a few emperors whom many would consider to be unstable, or even insane, it appears that the greatest threat he faced was from the dreaded Praetorian Guard. Apparently, after he took disciplinary measures in Pannonia in his role as governor, he became unpopular with the Praetorians, such that he feared for his life.

Emperor Alexander Severus, who seems to have liked Dio, attempted to keep Dio safe by allowing him to live and work away from Rome in Campania.

…I ruled the soldiers in Pannonia with a strong hand; and they demanded my surrender, through fear that someone might compel them to submit to a régime similar to that of the Pannonian troops.

Alexander, however, paid no heed to them, but, on the contrary, honoured me in various ways, especially by appointing me to be consul for the second time, as his colleague, and taking upon himself personally the responsibility of meeting the expenditures of my office. But as the malcontents evinced displeasure at this, he became afraid that they might kill me if they saw me in the insignia of my office, and so he bade me spend the period of my consul­ship in Italy, somewhere outside of Rome. And thus later I came both to Rome and to Campania to visit him, and spent a few days in his company, during which the soldiers saw me without offering to do me any harm;

(Cassius Dio; Roman History, Book LXXX)

Thankfully, Herodian fills in the gaps of Alexander Severus’ reign for us while Dio was distracted with duty, illness, and fear for his life at the hands of the Praetorians.

One can imagine that Dio would have continued to serve Alexander Severus long and faithfully but, as it was, for his safety and because of his illness and aching body, Cassius Dio was permitted to retire to Nicaea, in his native Bithynia, where he is supposed to have died shortly thereafter over the age of seventy.

…having asked to be excused because of the ailment of my feet, I set out for home, with the intention of spending all the rest of my life in my native land, as, indeed, the Heavenly Power revealed to me most clearly when I was already in Bithynia. For once in a dream I thought I was commanded by it to write at the close of my work these verses:

“Hector anon did Zeus lead forth out of range of the missiles, 

Out of the dust and the slaying of men and the blood and the uproar.”

(Cassius Dio; Roman History, Book LXXX)

Bust of Alexander Severus, the last Severan Emperor (Wikimedia Commons)

And so ended the Roman History, and the life of Cassius Dio.

Despite the importance of Dio’s Roman History for our knowledge of the Severan period, he has not been without criticism by modern historians. Some point out his use of adornment and personal anecdotes as a flaw when relaying significant events. Though not as salacious as Herodian, he does opt for more dramatic presentation at times. Dio has also been criticized for clouding things with his personal impressions. Sometimes names and exact dates are left out, and some speeches are believed to express Dio’s own views rather than actual events. An example of this is when Agrippa and Maecenas make speeches to Octavian when discussing the establishment of a monarchy in Book LII.

However, apart from his being the main source for the Severan period, Cassius Dio has much to commend him and his history. He pays a great deal of attention to constitutional and administrative matters, showing that he did his due diligence by consulting public records. He used a variety of sources in an attempt to arrive at the truth.

Cassius Dio, though half Greek, writes from a purely Roman viewpoint. And, interestingly, though he was a senator, he appeared to be a true believer in monarchy.

Personally, I have greatly enjoyed reading Dio’s work over the years, as well as including him in the Eagles and Dragons saga. This story would have been very different without his insights, and the personal anecdotes which some historians criticize him for, I actually find to be a boon. The personal, though not always unbiased, touch which Dio brings to the Roman History gives us a personal peek into the private lives of the Severans in a way that other histories do not.

For me, Cassius Dio has been a knowledgeable, accessible, and entertaining travel companion through the Severan age.

Thank you for reading.

We hope you’ve enjoyed this first post in The World of The Hearts of Heroes blog series. Stayed tuned for Part II in which we will look at the Roman-British civitas of Viroconium Cornoviorum.

If you are interested in reading the full, surviving text of Cassius Dio’s Roman History, you can do so for free by CLICKING HERE.

To read the text of Herodian, the other source for the period, click HERE.

The Hearts of Heroes: A Novel of the Roman Empire is available ebook, paperback and deluxe hardcover editions from all major online retailers, independent bookstores, brick and mortar chains, and your local public library.

CLICK HERE to buy a copy and get ISBN#s for the edition of your choice.

If you are new to the Eagles and Dragons historical fantasy series, you can start your epic adventure with the award-winning, #1 bestselling prequel, A Dragon among the Eagles.

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The World of Sincerity is a Goddess – Part V – Prostitution in Ancient Rome

Welcome back to The World of Sincerity is a Goddess, the blog series in which we are taking a look at some of the research that went into our latest novel set in ancient Rome.

If you missed Part IV on the Games of Apollo, you can read that by CLICKING HERE.

In Part V, we are going to be taking a brief look at prostitution in the Roman Empire.

We hope you find it interesting…

WARNING: The topic discussed in this post, as well as some of the images of ancient frescoes shown, may be offensive to some readers. Discretion is advised.

Now, it should be stated at the outset that Sincerity is a Goddess is not an erotic romp through the streets of Rome. It is a heartwarming comedy. However, as mentioned in Part III of this blog series, on humour and comedy in ancient Rome, the prostitute was a stock character in Roman comedic drama.

In truth, you can’t really write about the Roman world without touching on the long-standing role that prostitution and brothels had to play in society. They were a large part of that world, an element of life in ancient Rome that spanned classes.

They existed, and they most certainly flourished. People – that is, men – of all levels of society made it a normal practice to visit their favourite brothel or prostitute.

The Slave Market – oil painting by Gustave Boulanger, 1886 (Wikimedia Commons)

If you liked the HBO show ROME – which is fantastic by the way! – you might have an image of Titus Pullo whoring his way through the Suburra with his jug of wine in hand. Certainly, this sort of behaviour was not uncommon, especially for troops fresh back from the wars and looking for a good time.

The flip side might be the richer, upper class nobility who may have believed visiting prostitutes was fine, as long as it was done in moderation and didn’t cause a scandal.

The prostitution scene in the Empire was as large and varied as the workers and clients who kept it running. There was something for everyone!

But let’s look at things a bit more closely.

The She-Wolf suckling the brothers, Romulus and Remus

One could say that prostitution has ties to the founding of Rome itself.

You may have read about Romulus and Remus, the brothers who founded Rome and were suckled by the She Wolf, or Lupa.

We have heard of lost children being raised by wolves before, but in the instance of Romulus and Remus, many believe that they were actually raised by a prostitute who found them on the banks of the Tiber. The slang word for prostitute in Latin was lupa.

And the word for brothel was in fact lupanar or lupanarium.

A lupa and her patron

Clients were drawn in by the sexual allure of displayed ‘wares’, sometimes lined up naked on the curb outside, and the various experiences to be had within. The latter were sometimes illustrated in frescoes or mosaics on the walls of the lupanar. These were intended to add to the atmosphere, or were a sort of menu of pleasures to be had.

There were of course ‘high-class’ prostitutes who catered to wealthy and powerful patrons, women who were skilled at conversation, music and poetry. These high end lupae provided an escape, or a feast with friends, in lavish surroundings coupled with a sort of blissful oblivion. Some might have been purchased by their wealthy clients to keep for themselves, and if that was the case they might have ‘enjoyed’ a relatively easy life compared to the alternative.

A lupa’s ‘office’ or ‘cell’ in Pompeii – a cement bed that would have been covered with a matress and pillows

The truth for most, however, was that they were slaves. And slaves in ancient Rome, as we all know, were objects, property to be used and disposed of on a whim.

Prostitutes – women, boys, girls, eunuchs etc. – were at the bottom of the social scale, along with actors and gladiators. They could be adored by clients one moment, and shunned the next. And if a lupa was no longer profitable, the leno (pimp), or the lena (madam) might sell them off as a liability, sending them to a life that was possibly even worse.

In ancient Rome, prostitution was legal and licensed, and it was normal for men of any social rank to enjoy the range of pleasures that were on offer. Every budget and taste was catered to, and because of Rome’s conquests, and the length and breadth of the Roman Empire in the early 3rd century, there would have been slaves of every nationality and colour. Clients of the lupanar would have had their choice of Egyptians, Parthians and Numidians, Germans, Britons, slaves from the far East and anywhere else, including Italians.

The decor of Pompeii’s lupanar – a ‘menu’ of sorts (Wikimedia Commons)

However, even though prostitution was regulated, we should not delude ourselves. This was not a question of morality, or curbing venereal diseases. This was about maximizing profit – prostitution was also taxed!

In Pompeii, prostitution became a sort of tourist trade. One theory contends that on the street pavement you just had to follow the phalluses to find the nearest brothel! There were numerous brothels, and that’s not counting the small curbside cells or niches where the cheapest lupae provided quickies to passers-by.

The Great Lupanar of Pompeii

Because of the archaeological finds, the most well-known brothel in the Roman world was the ‘Great Lupanar’ of Pompeii, located at a crossroads two blocks from the Forum. Many of the frescoes pictured here are from that building which had ten rooms, where most brothels had just a few.

A sexual scene from Pompeii’s great lupanar

One might think that the subject of this particular post was rather fun to write about, that the images above are titillating. And sure, they are to an extent. I don’t mind a bit of risqué material on occasion. Why not?

But then, I can’t help thinking of the lives that these female, and sometimes male, prostitutes had to endure. Very few enjoyed the favour of kind and wealthy clients, living in luxurious surroundings.

Prostitutes were slaves and most were probably pumped and beaten for a bronze coin or two before having to receive their next tormentor. These people were objects to the rest of the world, not human beings. They were people’s daughters and sons, mothers, and sisters. In many cases they’d been taken from their homes on the other side of the world. Perhaps they were all that was left of their family?

For most prostitutes in the Roman Empire, life was a living Hades.

Lupanar scene from Pompeii

One thing is certain however. On the whole, prostitutes in the Roman world – be it Rome, Pompeii, or some far flung corner of the Empire – likely led tortured lives, living in squalid conditions while being brutalized by the male population. No matter how much one might like to romanticize the perceived sexual freedom of the Roman world, one cannot escape the fact that this freedom was supremely one-sided.

For some very interesting and sobering thoughts on the subject, watch this SHORT VIDEO interview with historian Mary Beard.

However, as I said, Sincerity is a Goddess is a comedy. The lupa in this book is not a tortured individual, but a more mature and savvy business woman who is quite skilled at reading people. She has, of course, had her share of hardship in her life, but by the time of our story, she has come through her toils a wiser and more confident person. Her character is crucial to the story and the journey one of our protagonists takes.

The Etrurian Players are coming! Brace yourselves!

Thank you for reading.

Sincerity is a Goddess is now available in ebook, paperback and hardcover from all major online retailers, independent bookstores, brick and mortal chains, and your local public library.

CLICK HERE to buy a copy and get ISBN#s information for the edition of your choice.

 

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New Release! Writing the Past – Helping Authors Bring the Past to Life!

Attention authors!

Today, Eagles and Dragons Publishing is thrilled to announce an important new release in our line of non-fiction books.

You could say that this book has been ten years in the making, ten years of learning, of failure, and of wonderful successes in writing, publishing and marketing historical fiction and historical fantasy.

Publishing has changed a lot in the last decade. A lot has happened. It’s the most exciting time ever to be a writer and publisher of historical novels. But there is also a lot to learn and navigate.

There isn’t much out there to help historical novelists in particular to make their way across this new world of writing and publishing, and so we thought the time was right to share what we’ve learned with our fellow authors and publishers who love to tell stories about the past.

That’s why we’re launching the first of in a new series of Eagles and Dragons Publishing Guides:

Have you ever wanted to write a historical novel, but don’t know where to start? 

Have you already written a book, but aren’t sure how to get it out into the world? 

Does modern book publishing and marketing overwhelm you?

If any of these questions or other challenges are holding you back, then The Eagles and Dragons Publishing Guide to Researching, Writing, Publishing, and Marketing Historical Fiction and Historical Fantasy can help to jumpstart your author career.

In this short, easy-to-understand guide, #1 bestselling author and historian, Adam Alexander Haviaras, shares proven, actionable tips and tricks that will help you to learn the following:

  • Historical research methodologies that anyone can use, no matter their level of education, to gather important background information for a novel.

  • Essential writing tips that will help you to write and complete a convincing historical novel that readers will love.

  • Publishing options and crucial steps for the historical novelist to succeed in the modern world.

  • Proven book marketing strategies that will ensure your historical epic gets to readers and turns them into fans.

This guide also includes two bonus sections on important mindset tips for authors so that they can succeed without burning out, and a proven historical novel book launch strategy blueprint that will help get you to #1.

Whether you are someone with an idea for a first novel, or a veteran author in need of reinforcements, everyone is guaranteed to get at least one tip or strategy from this book that will move their author career forward to victory.

It is the best time to be an author. Start your journey today!

Header image from the old ‘Writing the Past’ website – picture of the Sahara in Tunisia, setting for part of Children of Apollo (Eagles and Dragons Book I)

We’re very excited about this new release! But this is not a writing craft book. There aren’t any lessons on grammar and punctuation, or information on point of view or passive voice. However, if you are an established or aspiring author of historical fiction or historical fantasy, you will certainly find something useful in this new, practical book.

But why ‘Writing the Past’?

Well, 2019 marks the tenth anniversary of our blog, Writing the Past. Some of you have been with us from the beginning, but most of you have not.

Basically, in 2009, Adam launched the Writing the Past blog (on the Blogger platform) after hearing about the effectiveness and importance of blogging in getting information out into the world. He launched Writing the Past as a way to share his research for the first Eagles and Dragons novels, but also to share some of his experiences on the writing and publishing journey.

Ten years later, and here we are!

The Writing the Past blog is a bigger success than ever with regular emails coming in from around the world with questions about the books and content about ancient and medieval history, requests for interviews, and even an enquiry from a casting agent for the History Channel!

It’s been an amazing journey and, as on every journey, a lot has been learned.

And we want to share it with you.

Whether you are an established author of historical novels, or someone who is just starting out with an idea for your first work of historical fiction or fantasy, you will find something helpful in this new book.

It is our hope that Writing the Past will help all authors to bring the past to life in an exciting and accessible way for readers, and arm them for the writing success that they seek.

You can get your copy of Writing the Past in all of the on-line stores by CLICKING HERE. The e-book is available now with the paperback coming soon.

So, here’s to 10 years of Writing the Past, and to another ten and more!

Thank you for reading, and we look forward to an exciting future of bringing the past to life.

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