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The World of The Hearts of Heroes – Part VII – Alexander Severus: The End of the Severan Dynasty

Greetings Readers and Romanophiles!

Welcome back to The World of The Hearts of Heroes, the blog series in which we are exploring the history, people, and places behind-the-scenes of the newest Eagles and Dragons historical fantasy novel. 

If you missed the previous post on the very first church at Glastonbury, you can read that by CLICKING HERE.

In this seventh and final article, we’re going to look at the reign of Emperor Alexander Severus (A.D. 222-235) and how it brought about the end of the Severan dynasty.

Let’s begin…

The Severan Dynasty (Wikimedia Commons)

Sunt lacrimae rerum et mentem mortalia tangunt.

‘There are tears for things, and mortal sorrows touch the heart.’

(Virgil, The Aeneid, 1.462)

It has been quite an adventure getting to this point in the Eagles and Dragons series for, like the hero Aeneas looking back on his memories of war and toil above, my time spent with the Severans, researching and writing about them, has come to an end.

The Severan dynasty is, strangely enough, often overlooked by historians, authors, and scriptwriters who tend to focus on the sensational Julio-Claudians or the stoic Antonines. This is somewhat surprising as the years from A.D. 193 to A.D. 235 not only saw the Roman Empire at its greatest extent and power, but the period also, as is believed by some historians, brought about the beginning of the end of the Roman Empire.

However, it was the lack of attention to the Severans that provided the opportunity with this series of books to cut a new path to explore the history of this dynasty through fiction. From the powerful rise of Septimius Severus and the ‘Syrian women’, their actions, and the mistakes of their heirs, we have received a masterclass in the nature of power and politics, the importance of military might, and the fragility of the Pax Romana. We have learned about the two-faced nature of trust and the fickle ways of fortune.

The dynasty that Septimius Severus (A.D. 193-211) established through sheer will, blood, and determination eventually came to a lamentable end due to flawed nature of familial love, the shortcomings of his successors, and the jealousies and aspirations of others.

The Hearts of Heroes takes place in the final years of the Severans, during the reign of its last emperor, Alexander Severus. As we shall see, at the outset of his reign, he provided a much-needed glimmer of hope during a dark period in Rome’s history, but it was not enough to prevent the eventual downfall of that once-powerful family…

Map of the Roman Empire at its greatest extent (Oxford Research Encyclopedias)

Before we get into the reign of Alexander Severus, it is important to look at the brief reign of his slightly older cousin, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, known to us as Emperor Elagabalus, or ‘Heliogabalus’ (A.D. 218-222).

Elagabalus was the son of Julia Soaemias who was the daughter of the power Syrian woman, Julia Maesa, sister to Empress Julia Domna. That made him the great-nephew, by marriage, of Emperor Septimius Severus.

In hindsight, if there could be said to be a stain on the Severan line of succession, it would be Elagabalus, for though Caracalla’s reign was riddled with violent episodes, he did make an attempt at ruling the Empire and leading the army. Elagabalus’ reign, however, is marked by controversy, sexual debauchery, and murder which, if the sources are correct, seems akin to the madness of the reign of Caligula. In addition to this, and like Caligula, he made strange appointments to high positions, and disrespected Rome’s gods in favour of his dark Syrian god, Elagabal.

Elagabalus was set upon the imperial throne at just fourteen years old through the wiles of his grandmother, Julia Maesa, on year after the previous pretender, Marcus Opellius Macrinus (the only non-Severan of the period) conspired to have Emperor Caracalla murdered. Julia Maesa, took advantage of the unrest around Emperor Macrinus to instigate a rebellion and have Elagabalus declared emperor after the Battle of Antioch on June 8, A.D. 218.

Aureus of Elagabalus (c. A.D. 204-222)

It soon became apparent that Elagabalus was not suited to the role of Emperor, opting instead for dark rituals, cross-dressing, and generally disregarding the traditions of the Senate and people of Rome.

Perhaps most dangerous of all, he had lost the respect of the army. Cassius Dio, one of our main sources for the period, speaks to this:

The false Antoninus [Elagabalus] was despised and put out of the way by the soldiers. Thus it is that persons, particularly if armed, when they have once accustomed themselves to feel contempt for their rulers, set no limit to their right to do what they please, but keep their arms ready to use against the very man who gave them that power.

(Cassius Dio, Roman History, XVII)

Elagabalus’ grandmother, Julia Maesa, saw what was coming and, no doubt with the murder of Caracalla (with whom she had been very close) in mind, she began planning ahead so as to avoid another upstart like Macrinus.

She pinned her hopes on her other grandson, Alexianus (later Alexander Severus)…

Observing his actions, Maesa suspected that the soldiers were outraged by his eccentricities. Fearing that if Heliogabalus were killed, she would become a private citizen again, she tried to persuade the youth, who was in every respect an empty-headed young idiot, to adopt as his son and appoint as caesar his first cousin and her grandson, the child of her other daughter, Mamaea.

She told the emperor what it pleased him to hear, that it was clearly necessary for him to have time to attend to the worship and service of his god and to devote himself to the rites and revelries and divine functions, but that there should be another responsible for human affairs, to afford him leisure and freedom from the cares of empire. It was not necessary for him, she said, to look for a stranger or someone not a relative; he should entrust these duties to his own cousin.

(Herodian, The Roman History, V 7.1, 7.2)

Julia Maesa (A.D. 160-224)

And so, in A.D. 221, Alexander, who was twelve at the time, was adopted by his cousin Elagabalus as his heir, and given the title of ‘Caesar’.

This was a very dangerous time for the young Alexander, for in being so close to his mad, older cousin, he was in greater danger. If not for the two strong women looking after him – his grandmother, Julia Maesa, and his mother, Julia Mamaea – he would certainly have fallen victim to Elagabalus and his retinue.

Herodian, the main source for the reign of Alexander Severus, describes what happened…

After adopting Alexander as caesar, Heliogabalus [Elagabalus] undertook to teach him his own practices; he instructed him in dancing and prancing, and, enrolling him in the priesthood, wanted the lad to imitate his appearance and actions.

But his mother Mamaea kept Alexander from taking part in activities so disgraceful and unworthy of an emperor. Privately, she summoned teachers of every subject and had her son trained in the lessons of self-discipline; since he devoted himself to wrestling and to physical exercise as well, he was, by his mother’s efforts, educated according to both the Greek and the Roman systems. Heliogabalus, much annoyed at this, regretted his decision to make Alexander his son and partner in the empire.

He therefore banished Alexander’s teachers from the imperial palace; he put to death some of the most distinguished and sent others into exile. The emperor offered the most absurd excuses for doing this, claiming that these men, by teaching Alexander self-control, educating him in human affairs, and refusing to allow him to dance and take part in the frenzied orgies, would corrupt his adopted son. The madness of Heliogabalus increased to such a degree that he appointed all the actors from the stage and the public theaters to the most important posts in the empire, selecting as his praetorian prefect a man who had from childhood danced publicly in the Roman theater…

…They kept continual watch upon the youth [Alexander] when they saw that Heliogabalus was plotting against him. His mother Mamaea did not allow her son to touch any food or drink sent by the emperor, nor did Alexander use the cupbearers or cooks employed in the palace or those who happened to be in their mutual service; only those chosen by his mother, those who seemed most trustworthy, were allowed to handle Alexander’s food.

(Herodian, The Roman History, V 7.4-8.2)

Alexander Severus (A.D. 208-235)

It was only by his grandmother’s ruthlessness, his mother’s love, the respect of the Praetorians, and the gold Maesa and Mamaea lavished upon them, that Alexander survived that period, despite several plots by the Emperor to have him killed.

Julia Maesa, who was well used to surviving the dangers of an imperial court, saw the great danger that Elagabalus posed to them all. She plotted with the Praetorians to have Elagabalus removed. The Praetorians, it seems, did not need a great deal motivation in this, for when many of them showed favour to the younger Alexander, Elagabalus had them arrested. This was the final straw.

In March, A.D. 222, when the Emperor, his mother Soaemias, and Alexander were at the Castra Praetoria, the deed was done:

The praetorians were enraged by this order; since they had other reasons, also, for hating Heliogabalus, they wished now to rid themselves of so disgraceful an emperor, and believed, too, that they should rescue the praetorians under arrest. Considering the occasion ideal and the provocation just, they killed Heliogabalus and his mother Soaemias (for she was in the camp as Augusta and as his mother), together with all his attendants who were seized in the camp and who seemed to be his associates and companions in evil.

They gave the bodies of Heliogabalus and Soaemias to those who wanted to drag them about and abuse them; when the bodies had been dragged throughout the city, the mutilated corpses were thrown into the public sewer which flows into the Tiber.

(Herodian, The Roman History, V 8.8-8.9)

Elagabalus was just eighteen when he died so ignominious a death. Cassius Dio, who would have known all of them, describes their end in gruesome detail:

His mother [Soaemias], who embraced him and clung tightly to him, perished with him; their heads were cut off and their bodies, after being stripped naked, were first dragged all over the city, and then the mother’s body was cast aside somewhere or other, while his was thrown into the river.

(Cassius Dio, Roman History, LXXX, 20)

Thus, Julia Maesa succeeded in having her own daughter and grandson removed, and her other grandson proclaimed Emperor by the Praetorian Guard at just fourteen years old.

Julia Mamaea (A.D. 180-235)

A period of normalcy returned to the Empire with Alexander Severus being given the title and role of Emperor while his grandmother and mother managed and controlled imperial affairs in a more moderate and equitable administration that appeared to lean more toward common sense and nurturing the loyalty of the troops, a lesson they had all learned the importance of from Septimius Severus.

Together, they chose from members of the Senate an advisory council of sixteen wise men to guide the Emperor in decision making. This also gave a measure of power (at least perceived power) back to the aristocracy. The insults done to Rome’s gods were also fixed as their statues were replaced and those of Elagabalus’ choosing were removed. And, in the business of government, matters of state and public affairs were entrusted to competent lawyers and orators rather than actors, and military affairs were given over to actual men experienced in war.

It seemed like a new and hopeful age was upon the Empire and the Roman people.

But then, in A.D. 226, the matriarch of the Severan dynasty, Julia Maesa, died of old age. She received imperial honours and was deified.

And so, Julia Mamaea was now alone with the Emperor who was now about eighteen years old.

The Forum Romanum – The Heart of Ancient Rome with the Arch of Septimius Severus (centre left)

Julia Mamaea knew that she and her son were in a precarious position at this point in time and so, according to Herodian, she took steps to protect him with extreme vigilance. She also sought to control him, no doubt traumatized by the years of her nephew’s rule.

Now left alone with her son, Mamaea tried to govern and control him in the same fashion. Fearing that his vigorous young manhood might plunge him into the errors of adolescence because his power and position were assured, Mamaea kept the palace under close guard and allowed no one suspected of debauchery to approach the youth. She was afraid that his character would be corrupted if his flatterers aroused his growing appetites to disgraceful desires.

She therefore induced him to serve as judge in the courts continually and for most of each day; occupied with important matters and the necessary business of the empire, he would have no opportunity to indulge in scandalous practices. Alexander’s deportment was governed by a character naturally mild and civilized, and much inclined to benevolence, as was made clear when the youth grew older.

At any rate, he entered the fourteenth year of his reign without bloodshed, and no one could say that the emperor had been responsible for anyone’s murder. Even though men were convicted of serious crimes, he nevertheless granted them pardons to avoid putting them to death, and not readily did any emperor of our time, after the reign of Marcus, act in this way or display so much concern for human life. Indeed, over a period of many years, no one could recall that any man had been condemned to death by Alexander without a trial.

(Herodian, The Roman History, VI 1.5-1.7)

The Praetorian Guard

According to historian Michael Grant, Julia Mamaea’s tenure as Mater Augusti et Castrorum, ‘Mother of the Augustus and Mother of the Camp’, was the “climactic point of feminine power” in Ancient Rome. In addition to being highly protective of the Emperor, she was also a prudent and intelligent ruler, maintaining good relations with the advisory council, the Senate, and with the Christian community. She did, apparently, argue with Alexander Severus’ empress, Sallustia Barbia Orbiata, whom he married in A.D. 225, and whose father, Seius Herennius, was later executed for plotting against the Emperor. In the wake of that event, the young empress was exiled and Alexander Severus was left with his mother to rule alone, with help from advisors like Cassius Dio.

Though Alexander’s reign appeared to be a sort of Golden Age of peace and prosperity for a time, there were issues that arose. Official supervision of trade and industry grew steadily, and the coinage was debased. State subsidies of education and tax rebates for guilds and property owners contributed to a financial crisis.

It also seems that Julia Mamaea had developed a paranoia when it came to protecting her son and, as a result of this, she amassed a fortune in gold and riches, some of which was taken by legal means (or otherwise) from wealthy landowners and aristocrats. She appears to have been obsessed with gold, which she hoarded, but also used to keep the Praetorians paid.

Alexander blamed his mother for her excessive love of money and was annoyed by her relentless pursuit of gold. For a time she pretended to be gathering funds to enable Alexander to gratify the praetorians readily and generously, but in truth she was hoarding it for herself. And her miserliness in some measure reflected discredit upon his reign, even though he personally opposed it and was angry when she confiscated anyone’s property and inheritance illegally.

(Herodian, The Roman History, VI 1.8)

Throughout the history of Imperial Rome, the Praetorian Guard was often a danger to those in power, even though they were intended to protect the emperors.

When Septimius Severus became sole emperor after the civil war, one of his first acts was to punish the Praetorians for auctioning off the throne after the death of Commodus. He then replaced the Praetorians with loyal men from his own legions. Notwithstanding that Severus had wrongly trusted his kinsman, Gaius Fulvius Plautianus, as sole Praetorian Prefect, he had known that the Guard needed to be controlled.

However, by the time of Alexander Severus’ reign, the Praetorians had regained much of their lost power. After they had slain Elagabalus and acclaimed Alexander Severus as Emperor, in A.D. 223 they slew Domitius Ulpianus, the Praetorian Prefect.

Ulpianus, a lawyer and protege of Papinianus, the former Praetorian Prefect under Severus and Caracalla, was appointed to the prefecture by Alexander Severus. However, the Praetorians did not respect him. He was a lawyer, not a soldier, and so they slew him.

19th-century statue of Ulpian in the neoclassical Palais de Justice in Brussels, Belgium (Wikimedia Commons)

Around this time, according to Cassius Dio, the Praetorians also clashed with the Roman people for three days of fighting with many losing their lives. When the Praetorians began to lose, they began setting parts of the city on fire. A truce was reached, for fear of the city burning down.

Cassius Dio, who was made consul for the second time by Alexander Severus in A.D. 229, was also at odds with the Praetorians who had threatened his life such that the Emperor, who valued Dio’s council and friendship, insisted that Dio live away from Rome for his own safety, in Campania. It is at around this time, when The Hearts of Heroes takes place, that Cassius Dio ends his history and removes himself from public service, not only due to his ailing health, but also because of the threat posed by the Praetorians.

17th Century Illustration of Cassius Dio

It was now that Alexander Severus was to face his greatest threat: War.

In the year A.D. 231, Alexander Severus received dispatches from the Roman governors of Syria and Mesopotamia that a new Persian king by the name of Artaxerxes (Ardashir I) had killed the client Parthian king, Artabanus, and was now crossing the borders of the Roman Empire.

Alexander Severus wrote to Artaxerxes to warn him to stay within his own borders or else face defeat as he had at the hands of Septimius Severus and others.

Gold dinar of Artaxerxes (Ardashir I, c. A.D. 230)

But Artaxerxes ignored Alexander’s efforts; believing that the matter would be settled by arms, not by words, he took the field, pillaging and looting all the Roman provinces. He overran and plundered Mesopotamia, trampling it under the hoofs of his horses. He laid siege to the Roman garrison camps on the banks of the rivers, the camps which defended the empire. Rash by nature and elated by successes beyond his expectations, Artaxerxes was convinced that he could surmount every obstacle in his path.

(Herodian, The Roman History, VI 2.5)

Alexander had no choice but to go east to meet the enemy. With his massive army divided into three as they marched against the Persians, attacking them in different regions so that Artaxerxes had to hurry his men from one sector to another to meet them.

It might have been a good strategy had the Roman forces been in a better state of preparedness for the terrain and better disciplined. However, they were all but defeated.

All three Roman armies had been ordered to invade the enemy’s territory, and a final rendezvous had been selected to which they were to bring their booty and prisoners. But Alexander failed them: he did not bring his army or come himself into barbarian territory, either because he was afraid to risk his life for the Roman empire or because his mother’s feminine fears or excessive mother love restrained him.

She blocked his efforts at courage by persuading him that he should let others risk their lives for him, but that he should not personally fight in battle. It was this reluctance of his which led to the destruction of the advancing Roman army. The king attacked it unexpectedly with his entire force and trapped the Romans like fish in a net; firing their arrows from all sides at the encircled soldiers, the Persians massacred the whole army. The outnumbered Romans were unable to stem the attack of the Persian horde; they used their shields to protect those parts of their bodies exposed to the Persian arrows.

Content merely to protect themselves, they offered no resistance. As a result, all the Romans were driven into one spot, where they made a wall of their shields and fought like an army under siege. Hit and wounded from every side, they held out bravely as long as they could, but in the end all were killed. The Romans suffered a staggering disaster; it is not easy to recall another like it, one in which a great army was destroyed, an army inferior in strength and determination to none of the armies of old. The successful outcome of these important events encouraged the Persian king to anticipate better things in the future.

(Herodian, The Roman History, VI 5.8-5.10)

Map of Roman Empire during Roman-Persian War under Alexander Severus A.D. 230-233 (Omni Atlas)

Though it was not a total defeat of the Romans, the events could be considered a complete failure on the part of Alexander Severus, for in shunning the battlefield – either by his own cowardice, or because of his mother’s over-protectiveness – the Emperor had lost the respect of the army.

As it turned out, he fell far short of his great uncle, Septimius Severus, who had begun the dynasty and who had conquered the east and the Parthians so decisively.

Alexander, Julia Mamaea, and his retinue returned to Antioch to recuperate. They tried to console the troops with lavish distributions of money to try and regain their good will, but it was to no avail. Even though Artaxerxes was withdrawing for the moment, the damage was done.

Then, in A.D. 233, messages arrived from the governors in Illyria that the German tribes had crossed the Rhine and Danube frontiers and were plundering Roman territories. The governors insisted that the Emperor bring his armies to meet the threat immediately.

Although he loathed the idea, Alexander glumly announced his departure for Illyria. Necessity compelled him to go, however; and so, leaving behind a force which he considered strong enough to defend the Roman frontiers, after he had seen to the forts and the walls of the camps with greater care and had assigned to each fort its normal complement of troops, the emperor marched out against the Germans with the rest of his army.

(Herodian, The Roman History, VI 7.5)

However, when he finally arrived, rather than meet the Germans in battle, Emperor Alexander Severus sent an embassy to the Germans with a peace settlement. Herodian tells us that “the avaricious Germans are susceptible to bribes and always ready to sell peace to the Romans for gold.”

Consequently, Alexander undertook to buy a truce rather than risk the hazards of war.

The soldiers, however, were not pleased by his action, for the time was passing without profit to them, and Alexander was doing nothing courageous or energetic about the war; on the contrary, when it was essential that he march out and punish the Germans for their insults, he spent the time in chariot racing and luxurious living.

(Herodian, The Roman History, VI 7.9-7.10)

Roman Aurea

Was Alexander Severus truly terrified of battle? Was his mother, Julia Mamaea, so fearful of losing him that she prevented him from fighting? Whatever the reason, the troops were no longer loyal to their emperor who had fallen short of all expectation.

In the end, while on the German frontier at Mogontiacum (Mainz), the men of the legions decided to back one of their own, a decorated legionary by the name of Maximinus. They robed him in imperial purple and declared him ‘Emperor’. Alexander Severus’ troops abandoned him. Herodian describes his end:

Trembling with fear, Alexander was scarcely able to retire to his quarters. Clinging to his mother and, as they say, complaining and lamenting that she was to blame for his death, he awaited his executioner. After being saluted as emperor by the entire army, Maximinus sent a tribune and several centurions to kill Alexander and his mother, together with any of his followers who opposed them.

When these men came to the emperor’s quarters, they rushed in and killed him with his mother; they also cut down those whom he had honored or who appeared to be his friends. Some, however, managed to flee or to hide for the moment, but Maximinus soon rounded up these fugitives and put them to death.

Such was the fate suffered by Alexander and his mother after he had ruled fourteen years without blame or bloodshed so far as it affected his subjects. A stranger to savagery, murder, and illegality, he was noted for his benevolence and good deeds. It is therefore entirely possible that the reign of Alexander might have won renown for its perfection had not his mother’s petty avarice brought disgrace upon him.

(Herodian, The Roman History, VI 9.6-9.8)

Maximinus Thrax – The Legionary Emperor (reigned A.D. 235-238)

In A.D. 235 Alexander Severus and his mother, Julia Mamaea, were slain by the men of the legions whose loyalty had been lost. The Severan dynasty was at an end. What had, at first, been the start of a period of hope, a new ‘golden age’, had turned into a titanic disappointment with a tragic, but not unexpected, finale.

Maximinus Thrax (A.D. 235-238), a Thracian, became the first legionary to be Emperor but he was a soldier, and not up to the politics of the role. He was tyrannical and prone to cruelty. He ignored Rome from the outset and the Senate turned on him, electing Gordian I to replace him. When he marched on Italy and was besieging Aquilea, Maximinus’ troops turned on him and murdered him and his son. Like Macrinus, he was just another upstart left for dead in the dust of the Empire.

Aerial view of the ruins of Leptis Magna – North African home of Septimius Severus who founded the dynasty

And so we come to the end of our time with the Severans, in fiction, and in history. It has been a fascinating journey getting to know this family at the peak of Rome’s might.

The Severan period is marked by several things, including a strong military with the successful completion of major campaigns that extended the Empire’s territory to its greatest extent, especially the Parthian campaign of Septimius Severus. The period saw curbed Praetorian power (at least at the outset) and, conversely, one of the most brutal Praetorian Prefects in Gaius Fulvius Plautianus. It was a period that saw some of the strongest, most powerful and intelligent women in the history of Ancient Rome in Empress Julia Domna, Julia Maesa, and Julia Mamaea.

The dynasty might have lasted longer, and Septimius Severus’ hard work not been lost, had it not been for the weakness of his heirs: his son’s Caracalla and Geta, and his great-nephews Elagabalus and Alexander Severus.

Silver Denarius of Alexander Severus (A.D. 222-235)

Was Alexander Severus’ end brought about by his cowardice, his mother’s avarice for wealth, or her deep fears for her son’s safety which manifested in an overprotectiveness that did more harm than good? Or is power at such lofty heights so precarious that one slip can send one over the cliff?

It seems like there is merit in all of the reasons given above. Just as with the fall of the Roman Empire, there is not one cause alone for its end, but rather a series of events and failures that led to its demise.

Perhaps the Severan dynasty is Rome’s end in microcosm. As Edward Gibbon wrote:

The contemporaries of Severus, in the enjoyment of the peace and glory of his reign, forgave the cruelties by which it had been introduced. Posterity, who experienced the fatal effects of his maxims and example, justly considered him as the principal author of the decline of the Roman Empire.

(Edward Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, X, vol.1)

In the end, it seems that, despite the foundations of a dynasty laid by Septimius Severus, none of his heirs were up the task of treading the tightrope between strong and judicious rule and tyranny.

This period in Rome’s history was certainly not perfect, but it has much to teach us, including the lesson that, just as with empires, families too rise and fall…

Thank you for reading.

That concludes our blog series on The World of The Hearts of Heroes. We sincerely hope that you enjoyed it and found it informative. If you have missed any of the articles in this seven-part series, you can read them all on one page by CLICKING HERE.

If you are interested in reading the two main sources for this period, you can read Cassius Dio’s text in translation by CLICKING HERE, and Herodian’s text HERE.

If you would like to read more about the Severan dynasty and their period in Rome’s history, we urge you to explore the articles in the ‘Article Archive’ on the Eagles and Dragons Publishing website. We also highly recommend the book The Severans: The Changed Roman Empire by eminent historian, Michael Grant as a very accessible read that explores this period of immense change in the history of Rome.

The Hearts of Heroes: A Novel of the Roman Empire is available ebook, paperback and deluxe hardcover editions from all major online retailers, independent bookstores, brick and mortar chains, and your local public library.

CLICK HERE to buy a copy and get ISBN#s for the edition of your choice.

If you are new to the Eagles and Dragons historical fantasy series, you can start your epic adventure with the award-winning, #1 bestselling prequel, A Dragon among the Eagles which is set during the Parthian campaigns of Emperor Septimius Severus.

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The World of The Hearts of Heroes – Part V – Mona: Rome and the Isle of Anglesey

Greetings, Readers and History-lovers!

Welcome back to The World of The Hearts of Heroes. We hope you’ve enjoyed the blog series thus far. A lot of research goes into every Eagles and Dragons series novel, and we’re thrilled to share it with you!

If you missed Part IV on Ffos Anoddun, the Fairy Glen of Wales, you can read that article by CLICKING HERE.

In Part V, we’re taking a look at another of the important settings in The Hearts of Heroes, a place of mystery, violence, and of exile in history, and in our story.

Join us as we explore the Isle of Anglesey and Rome’s involvement on the island…

Some of the known Romano-British sites on Anglesey

The Isle of Anglesey, or Ynys Môn as it is named in Welsh, is a large island off the northwest coast of Wales. It lies just across the Menai Strait which runs between the island and the mainland for approximately 24 kms from Caernarfon to Bangor. The island itself is roughly 33×36 kms, and also includes Holy Island just off its west coast.

To the Romans, Anglesey was simply known as ‘Mona’.

Today, the Isle of Anglesey is known mainly for tourism along its beautiful coastlines. It is also known for mining. But these two things belie the violent history of the island, a history that revolves mainly around the Romans.

The people who lived on pre-Roman Mona were thought to be part of the Ordovices tribe who inhabited central and northwestern Wales, including the mountainous region of Snowdonia. That said, those living on Mona, on the other side of the Menai Strait, may have considered themselves a separate tribe.

Bryn Celli Ddu burial chamber, pre-Roman, Anglesey (Wikimedia Commons)

Pre-Roman Anglesey had sacred groves of trees, burial chambers, cairns, standing stones, and sacred wells. There was also a copper mining and metalworking industry at Parys Mountain and places such as Llyn Cerrig Bach which some believe to have been a religious centre.

Religion appears to have been important on Anglesey, and one interesting find from different parts of the island are carved stone heads dotted with small holes. These are thought to have been used in religious rituals.

Most importantly, at least to history, Anglesey is thought to have been the religious power centre of the Druids in Britain.

When Rome began its invasion of Britannia in earnest under Emperor Claudius in A.D. 43, it was only a matter of time before the legions swept north and the fighting reached the tribes of Wales, including on Anglesey.

The Roman Attack on Anglesey – by John Harris Valda (Wikimedia Commons)

On the beach stood the adverse array, a serried mass of arms and men, with women flitting between the ranks. In the style of Furies, in robes of deathly black and with dishevelled hair, they brandished their torches; while a circle of Druids, lifting their hands to heaven and showering imprecations, struck the troops with such an awe at the extraordinary spectacle that, as though their limbs were paralyzed, they exposed their bodies to wounds without an attempt at movement. Then, reassured by their general, and inciting each other never to flinch before a band of females and fanatics, they charged behind the standards, cut down all who met them, and enveloped the enemy in his own flames. The next step was to install a garrison among the conquered population, and to demolish the groves consecrated to their savage cults: for they considered it a duty to consult their deities by means of human entrails. — While he was thus occupied, the sudden revolt of the province was announced to Suetonius.

(Tacitus, Annals, Book XIV)

There were two major Roman assaults on Mona. The first, described above by Tacitus, was led by Governor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus in A.D. 60. Paulinus’ assault included the XIV Gemina Martia Victrix legion, previously stationed at Viroconium, and auxiliary units of Batavian light infantry, Batavian horse, and other cavalry units.

Despite the differences between the fragmented and warring tribes of Britain at the time, Paulinus recognized the Druids, and the British religion which they represented and administered, as something the tribes could rally around. Druid priests, though supposedly elusive and less numerous than they had been in Gaul, were a source of strength for the Britons. They even educated the children of noble British families. Earlier on, the emperors Augusts and Claudius both passed edicts against Druidism because of its seditious nature.

As the religious centre of the Druids in Britain, Anglesey became a target for the Romans who may have believed it was at the heart of the British resistance.

Aerial view of the Menai Strait where the Romans likely crossed.

During the winter, the Romans built a fleet of flat-bottomed boats which they would use to take the troops across the Menai Strait that summer while the cavalry forded in the shallows and the light Batavian troops swam. It is believed that the Roman amphibious assault was met not only by the Ordovices, but also by warriors of the Decangli and Silures tribes who were waiting on the other side.

As can be seen in the quote from Tacitus above, what appears to have caused the superstitious Roman troops even more concern were the crazy women, dressed in black, with wild hair shrieking and waving torches, and the Druids with their arms raised as they called on their gods.

But Paulinus urged his men forward, despite their fear, and they cut through the Celts in a bloody massacre after which they burned the bodies. The Romans spread across Mona, rounding up the Druid priests and prisoners and burning the sacred groves where they believed human sacrifices had taken place.

Reconstruction of a Celtic ‘nemeton’, the sort of sanctuary or ‘sacred grove’ that might have existed on Anglesey

However, before the island could be fully subdued, and before the flames had cooled, Paulinus received dispatches from the mainland informing him of a major uprising.

Boudicca of the Iceni tribe had begun a rebellion.

Boudicca led her army against the Romans; for these chanced to be without a leader, inasmuch as Paulinus, their commander, had gone on an expedition to Mona, an island near Britain. This enabled her to sack and plunder two Roman cities, and, as I have said, to wreak indescribable slaughter. Those who were taken captive by the Britons were subjected to every known form of outrage. The worst and most bestial atrocity committed by their captors was the following. They hung up naked the noblest and most distinguished women and then cut off their breasts and sewed them to their mouths, in order to make the victims appear to be eating them; afterwards they impaled the women on sharp skewers run lengthwise through the entire body. All this they did to the accompaniment of sacrifices, banquets, and wanton behaviour, not only in all their other sacred places, but particularly in the grove of Andate. This was their name for Victory, and they regarded her with most exceptional reverence.

Now it chanced that Paulinus had already brought Mona to terms, and so on learning of the disaster in Britain he at once set sail thither from Mona. However, he was not willing to risk a conflict with the barbarians immediately, as he feared their numbers and their desperation, but was inclined to postpone battle to a more convenient season. But as he grew short of food and the barbarians pressed relentlessly upon him, he was compelled, contrary to his judgment, to engage them. Boudicca, at the head of an army of about 230,000 men, rode in a chariot herself and assigned the others to their several stations. Paulinus could not extend his line the whole length of hers, for, even if the men had been drawn up only one deep, they would not have reached far enough, so inferior were they in numbers; nor, on the other hand, did he dare join battle in a single compact force, for fear of being surrounded and cut to pieces. He therefore separated his army into three divisions, in order to fight at several points at one and the same time, and he made each of the divisions so strong that it could not easily be broken through.

(Cassius Dio, The Roman History, LXII)

Artist impression of Boudicca and her daughters rallying the troops from her war chariot

We won’t go into all of the details of the Boudiccan rebellion here, suffice it to say that it was a bloody affair that saw the destruction of the Roman settlements of Camulodunum (Colchester), Verulamium (St. Alban’s), and Londinium (London).

Governor Paulinus, leaving a few cohorts behind on Mona, rushed from there to the fortress at Deva (Chester) and then marched down Watling Street with his XIVth legion men, as well as veterans of the XXth legion, including 2,500 evocati, 2,000 auxiliary infantry, and 500 cavalry. The Roman force met Boudicca’s along the Roman road…

At first, the legionaries stood motionless, keeping to the defile as a natural protection: then, when the closer advance of the enemy had enabled them to exhaust their missiles with certitude of aim, they dashed forward in a wedge-like formation. The auxiliaries charged in the same style; and the cavalry, with lances extended, broke a way through any parties of resolute men whom they encountered. The remainder took to flight, although escape was difficult, as the cordon of wagons had blocked the outlets. The troops gave no quarter even to the women: the baggage animals themselves had been speared and added to the pile of bodies. The glory won in the course of the day was remarkable, and equal to that of our older victories: for, by some accounts, little less than eighty thousand Britons fell, at a cost of some four hundred Romans killed and a not much greater number of wounded. Boudicca ended her days by poison…

(Tacitus, Annals, Book XIV)

Despite being massively outnumbered the Romans, under Paulinus’ command, were victorious. The rebellion, however, was not without cost. Something like 80,000 Roman citizens and allies were slain in a few weeks. After the victory, Suetonius Paulinus was recalled to Rome by Emperor Nero who granted him a triumph and later a consulship.

But that is not the end of the story for Mona.

Agricola – Statue at Roman Baths, Bath, England

The second Roman assault on the island of Mona came about seventeen years after the end of the Boudiccan rebellion, in the year A.D. 78, when Gnaeus Julius Agricola, an apprentice of Governor Paulinus, arrived as the new governor of the province.

This second campaign against the island was precipitated by the massacre of a Roman cavalry squadron by the Ordovices in the Snowdonia region. As the new governor, Agricola knew that he needed to make a statement and, though the campaigning season was nearly over, he decided to take decisive action.

Tacitus, who was actually Agricola’s son-in-law, describes the events:

…when Agricola arrived in the middle of summer; at a time when the Roman soldiers, supposing the expeditions of the year were concluded, were thinking of enjoying themselves without care, and the natives, of seizing the opportunity thus afforded them. Not long before his arrival, the Ordovices had cut off almost an entire corps of cavalry stationed on their frontiers; and the inhabitants of the province being thrown into a state of anxious suspense by this beginning, inasmuch as war was what they wished for, either approved of the example, or waited to discover the disposition of the new governor. The season was now far advanced, the troops dispersed through the country, and possessed with the idea of being suffered to remain inactive during the rest of the year; circumstances which tended to retard and discourage any military enterprise; so that it was generally thought most advisable to be contented with defending the suspected posts: yet Agricola determined to march out and meet the approaching danger. For this purpose, he drew together the detachments from the legions, and a small body of auxiliaries; and when he perceived that the Ordovices would not venture to descend into the plain, he led an advanced party in person to the attack, in order to inspire the rest of his troops with equal ardor. The result of the action was almost the total extirpation of the Ordovices; when Agricola, sensible that renown must be followed up, and that the future events of the war would be determined by the first success, resolved to make an attempt upon the island Mona, from the occupation of which Paullinus had been summoned by the general rebellion of Britain, as before related. The usual deficiency of an unforeseen expedition appearing in the want of transport vessels, the ability and resolution of the general were exerted to supply this defect. A select body of auxiliaries, disencumbered of their baggage, who were well acquainted with the fords, and accustomed, after the manner of their country, to direct their horses and manage their arms while swimming, were ordered suddenly to plunge into the channel; by which movement, the enemy, who expected the arrival of a fleet, and a formal invasion by sea, were struck with terror and astonishment, conceiving nothing arduous or insuperable to troops who thus advanced to the attack. They were therefore induced to sue for peace, and make a surrender of the island; an event which threw lustre on the name of Agricola, who, on the very entrance upon his province, had employed in toils and dangers that time which is usually devoted to ostentatious parade, and the compliments of office.

(Tacitus, The Life of Agricola, XVIII)

The final Roman conquest of Mona was complete.

After the Roman conquest, what did life look like for the Britons who survived and continued to inhabit the island of Mona?

Well, it seems that, apart from the distinct lack of an overt Druid presence (if any had survived, that is) life may have carried on much the same as it always had once things settled, with mining and small farmstead activities continuing under Roman military occupation. During the third and fourth centuries A.D., the Pax Romana settled on the land, across Mona and the rest of Britannia. A distinct Romano-British culture began to form.

Today, though there are Roman sites scattered all over mainland Wales, it is not so on the Isle of Anglesey. Archaeological excavations to date have revealed just a few sites.

Remains of Roman fortlet walls at Caer Gybi

At Caer Gybi, near Holyhead on Holy Island, the largest modern settlement on Anglesey, there was a Roman fortlet on a natural harbour there which was built c. A.D. 300. It had 4 m high walls and three circular towers, and measured about two-hundred and thirty by one-hundred and fifty feet. This may have been a base for Roman war ships and the construction coincides with the time of the Saxon Shore forts in the south of Britannia.

At Caer y Twr, on Holyhead Mountain, which was the highest point on Holy Island, there are the remains of a Roman signal station which, logically, served the fortlet and port at Caer Gybi.

Caer y Twr – Remains of the Roman watchtower on Holyhead Mountain

Another possible Roman sea port and fortlet is thought to have been located at Aberffraw in the southwest corner of Anglesey. This site dates to the first century A.D. and archaeology indicates two phases of occupation which may coincide with the two Roman assaults on Anglesey. There were ditches and Roman defences, but most of the remains are beneath the modern village. Roman pottery has also been found on the site.

Apart from these three sites, there are no other known Roman military sites on Anglesey. The island was, relatively speaking, not that large, and it was already served – or, overseen – by the cohort of five hundred men of the Cohors I Sunicorum stationed at Segontium on the other side of the Menai Strait at what is now Caernarfon. The garrison at Segontium was responsible for the security and defence of north Wales, especially against Irish raiders during the Pax Romana.

Artist impression of the fort of Segontium from the east, c. 250 A.D. (J. Banbury)

There is a bit more in the way of Romano-British remains on Anglesey. This hints at the life of the Ordovices who carried on with their lives during the period of Roman peace.

On the northeast coast of Anglesey, the fourth century A.D. settlement of Din Lligwy, whose occupation went back to the pre-Roman Iron Age, continued to be in use. This was a walled settlement on a low hill with good views all around. There are the remains of round and rectangular huts and a great deal of Roman pottery has been found on the site, as well as the remains of iron smelting and smithing activities which appear to have used coal from the mainland of Britannia. In addition to the smelting activities, farming was also carried out here.

Foundations of roundhouse:hut at Din Lligwy, Anglesey

On the southeast coast of Anglesey, not far from the magnificent Medieval castle of Beaumaris, is the ancient hillfort of Din Sylwy, also known as Bwrdd Arthur, or ‘Arthur’s Table’. This Iron Age hillfort was occupied by the Ordovices long before the Romans came and played, it is supposed, a role in the Roman assaults on Anglesey. It has an area of about seven hectares and was surrounded by a limestone wall with two gates or entrances.

What is interesting about Din Sylwy is it’s association with the legendary British freedom fighter, ’Arthur’, whom we have come to know as ‘King Arthur’. Local lore has it that Arthur met at this roughly round site with his men, or that he had fought there.

Din Sylwy – Bwrdd Arthur (‘Arthur’s Table’)

A large Romano-British settlement known as Ty-Mawr was located at Holyhead on Holy Island, below the Roman signal station at Caer y Twr. This site contained the remains of about twenty circular Iron Age huts, though there may have been as many as fifty. It is one of the best preserved hut groups in all of Wales and was occupied into the third and fourth centuries A.D. Some of the huts or roundhouses may have been as much as ten meters wide. Finds at Ty-Mawr included items of daily life such as quern stones for grinding grain, spindles, mortars, pottery, and coins. Also found there was copper from the mines at Parys Mountain on Anglesey.

Foundations of Celtic Iron Age huts:roundhouses at Ty-Mawr

Lastly, we have the copper mines at Parys Mountain, or ‘Trysclwyn’ as it was originally known.

These mines are thought to have been in use for up to four thousand years and been of great import to the British Bronze Age. Some even suppose that the mining operations at Parys Mountain may have helped to finance the Druids and their resistance to the Roman invasion.

Parys Mountain Mines, Isle of Anglesey

After the Roman invasion, the copper mines at Parys Mountain continued to be used with the copper being shipped to smaller villages on Anglesey where it was smelted before being transported to ports such as Aberffraw to go to the mainland. One Roman-era copper ingot or ‘cake’ was found stamped with ‘SOCIO-ROMAE-NATSOL’, presumed to be an official stamp of the Roman copper trade on Mona.

If the Romans remained interested in Mona after the invasion, the copper mines were no doubt one of the main reasons.

Roman-era copper ingot or ‘cake’ with official stamp of the Roman copper trade on Mona.

In The Hearts of Heroes, the Isle of Anglesey, Roman Mona, provides the setting for some of the story which takes place in the year A.D. 229. At this time, the fortress at Segontium would have been there for almost two hundred years, the Ordovices would have recovered from the violence of Rome’s initial assaults on the island, and life would have settled into the Pax Romana.

This was a cycle that was common throughout the history of Rome as it expanded, violent beginnings leading to periods of peace and prosperity.

Traeth Bychan – ‘The Traeth’, site of homestead of Killian in The Hearts of Heroes

The people of Mona, however, like the rest of Britannia, were left to their own devices when Rome, under Emperor Honorius, pulled out of the province in the fourth century. The people of Mona continued to mine and to farm, but they were also faced with an increase in Irish raids without the protection of Rome.

It was not until the arrival of Cunedda ap Edern, Lord of the Gododdin, the descendants of the Votadini, that the Irish were driven out for good.

And so, the history of Anglesey continued in a cycle of blood and peace, its ebb and flow like the sparkling sea that surrounded it.

Thank you for reading.

We hope you’ve enjoyed this article about Rome and the Isle of Anglesey.

Tune in for Part VI in The World of The Hearts of Heroes when we will be looking at the the famed Lady Chapel of Glastonbury Abbey.

The Hearts of Heroes: A Novel of the Roman Empire is available ebook, paperback and deluxe hardcover editions from all major online retailers, independent bookstores, brick and mortar chains, and your local public library.

CLICK HERE to buy a copy and get ISBN#s for the edition of your choice.

If you are new to the Eagles and Dragons historical fantasy series, you can start your epic adventure with the award-winning, #1 bestselling prequel, A Dragon among the Eagles.

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The World of The Hearts of Heroes – Part III – Feast Days: Seasonal Celebrations of the Ancient Celts

Welcome back to The World of The Hearts of Heroes! 

We hope that you’ve enjoyed this blog series so far. If you missed Part II on the Romano British civitas of Viroconium Cornoviorum, you can read that by CLICKING HERE.

In Part III, we’re going to take a look at the seasonal celebrations of one the most important, fascinating, and culturally rich groups in ancient Europe and the British Isles: the Celts.

As we shall see, many pagan Celtic traditions survived the coming of Rome and the subsequent conversion to Christianity. We’ll discuss classical writers’ views of the Celts, explore Celtic myth, and look at the four great festivals that continue to be celebrated to this day.

Artist impression of Celtic peoples of Europe and Britain – by Albert Kretschmer, painters and costumer to the Royal Court Theatre, Berin, and Dr. Carl Rohrbach. – Costumes of All Nations (1882)

The history and archaeology of the cultural group we call the ‘Celts’ has always been fascinating to me, not least because of its wonderful mythology, but also because of the role it plays in Arthurian legend and literature. As the Eagles and Dragons series has progressed, many fans have noted the breadcrumbs of Celtic and Arthurian images and themes emerging in the world of the Roman Empire that has dominated the series to this point.

In The Hearts of Heroes, Greco-Roman and Celtic religious beliefs have always played a large role in the story and, in this latest novel, some of the key moments take place during the important festivals of Beltane and Samhain.

There were, in fact, four major seasonal festivals celebrated by the ancient Celts, especially in the British Isles. These were Imbolc, Beltane, Lughnasadh, and Samhain.

What were these ancient festivals? What did the Celts do at that time of year, and how did they celebrate? We’ll take brief look at each of them in turn.

Gilt bronze head of Sulis Minerva from Bath. The Romano-British Goddess that combined Minerva with Sulis, Celtic Goddess of Wisdom and Decisions

Before we dive into the specifics of the festivals themselves, let’s discuss the ‘Celts’. Who were they? What set them apart, and how did so much of their culture survive?

‘Celts’, very simply put, is actually a broad term given to the ancient peoples of pagan beliefs in Europe and the British Isles from about 700 B.C. to A.D. 400. They thrived in much of Europe north of the Alps, but also moved south to the Mediterranean, sacking Rome in 387 B.C. and plundering the sanctuary of Delphi in 279 B.C. As Rome pushed back against the migrating Celts, defeating them heavily in Gaul, the last strongholds for these peoples became what we know today as Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, as well as Cornwall and Brittany.

As Rome’s legions conquered Britannia, however, Celtic culture and religion were not completely snuffed out. In fact, a unique Romano-British culture emerged that was an amalgam of the two sides, and it thrived once the Pax Romana had settled over Britannia.

Vercingetorix Throws Down his Arms at the Feet of Julius Caesar (Lionel Royer 1899)

The nation of all the Gauls is extremely devoted to superstitious rites; and on that account they who are troubled with unusually severe diseases, and they who are engaged in battles and dangers, either sacrifice men as victims, or vow that they will sacrifice them, and employ the Druids as the performers of those sacrifices; because they think that unless the life of a man be offered for the life of a man, the mind of the immortal gods can not be rendered propitious, and they have sacrifices of that kind ordained for national purposes. Others have figures of vast size, the limbs of which formed of osiers they fill with living men, which being set on fire, the men perish enveloped in the flames. They consider that the oblation of such as have been taken in theft, or in robbery, or any other offence, is more acceptable to the immortal gods; but when a supply of that class is wanting, they have recourse to the oblation of even the innocent.

(Gaius Julius Caesar, The Gallic War, Book VI, 16)

Much of what we know about the Celts comes from classical writers such as Julius Caesar (above), or references by such ancient Greek authors as Herodotus and Hecataeus of Miletus, or later Roman authors like Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, Lucan, and Cassius Dio. Some of these authors wrote about the customs and religion of the ancient Celts, but admittedly, it was more often from their point of view as a more ‘civilized’ society. Though there is still much to be gleaned from these texts, it is important to keep in mind that, as in the case of Caesar’s memoir of the conquest of Gaul, he may have sensationalized the Celtic people, the Druids, and their barbarian rituals to enhance his own actions and achievements.

History is often written by the victors, after all.

That said, classical authors are not our only source for knowledge about the Celts, not even remotely. Archaeology and material culture have been a wealth of knowledge for us, as have the rich linguistic legacies Celtic language and literature. It is the literature of early Medieval Wales and Ireland that is, perhaps, one of the greatest sources of our knowledge about the Celts, their society, religion, and mythology.

The combination of all of these sources help to point a rather vivid picture of the Celts and their beliefs, including shared themes of water rituals, head-hunting, otherworldly feasting, the religious significance of cauldrons, the sanctity of the number ‘3’ and more.

The Gundestrup cauldron is a silver vessel dated from between 200 BC and 300 AD. it’s the largest known example of European Iron Age silver work. Now in the National Museum of Denmark in Copenhagen.

When it came to religious beliefs, one might think that Christianity would have wiped out all traces of pagan Celtic beliefs.

But that is not so.

While Celtic beliefs seem to have melded nicely, post-conquest, with those of their Roman conquerors (the Goddess Epona is a perfect example of this), the subsequent Christianization of the Celts appears to have also been something of a smooth transition with Celtic monks copying and Christianizing ancient pagan tales such as the Táin Bó Cúailnge and four branches of The Mabinogi. Celtic gods also survived by donning the robes of Christian Saints.

The religion of the pagan Celtic world survived not only in the literature that was passed on, but also in the seasonal festivals of the Celts that continue to be celebrated to this day. It is through these seasonal festivals that we can glimpse the beliefs and rituals of an ancient pagan, Celtic past.

The Tuatha Dé Danann as depicted in John Duncan’s Riders of the Sidhe (1911)

All over Europe the peasants have been accustomed from time immemorial to kindle bonfires or certain days of the year, and to dance round or leap over them. Customs of this kind can be traced back on historical evidence to the Middle Ages, and their analogy to similar customs observed in antiquity goes with strong internal evidence to prove that their origin must be sought in a period long before the spread of Christianity…

…The seasons of the year when these bonfires are most commonly lit are spring and midsummer; but in some places they are kindled also at the end of autumn or during the course of the winter…

(Sir James Frazer, The Golden Bough, LXII)

Water and fire were both important aspects of the seasonal festivals of the Celts. Sir James Frazer was correct in highlighting the importance of fire in festivals. Fire was equated with the sun and was its terrestrial element symbolizing warmth and illumination, venerated for its purifying and cleansing qualities.

Like the Greeks and Romans, there were many festivals throughout the year for the Celts. The difference however was that Celtic religion, though honouring the gods, also honoured nature and the cycles of nature, perhaps in a more fulsome way that the Greeks and Romans.

The four main seasonal festivals of the Celts (Imbolc, Beltane, Lughnasadh, and Samhain), what we know about them, and how they are celebrated to this day, illustrate this…

Painting of Saint Brigid with a bowl of fire, a spindle, and a cow in St. Patrick’s Chapel, Glastonbury Abbey.

IMBOLC

The ancient festival of Imbolc was held on February 1st of ever year. It marked the beginning of Spring and was associated with the lambing season.

After a long winter during which food stores were depleted, the lambing season did not only symbolize brith and fertility in the springtime. It also meant the arrival of fresh milk after the winter shortage.

In addition to being a festival of renewal and rebirth, Imbolc was also a purification festival, similar to Lupercalia in Ancient Rome.

This Celtic festival appears to have been celebrated mostly in Ireland, though it was also celebrated in Scotland, and other areas. And some tombs across the land, such as the Mound of Hostages at Tara in Ireland are aligned to be illuminated by the sunrise on the morning of Imbolc.

The strongest association of this festival was with the Irish Goddess Brigid who, in myth, was one of the Tuatha De Danann, the supernatural race who are descended from the Goddess Danu in Irish mythology.

Brigid is one of those special figures from Irish myth who survived the Christianization of the land and culture. The Goddess Brigid joined with St. Brigid of Kildare, the mother saint of Ireland who founded the Abbey of Kildare in around A.D. 480.

The festival of Imbolc on Feburary 1st thus became the feast day of St. Brigid.

Saint Brigid’s cross, made from rushes from County Down. (Wikimedia Commons)

During the festival of Imbolc, there were certain traditions that took place, including visits to holy wells, eating special meats, holding feasts and, it is also supposed, the ritual washing of the hands, feet, and head.

The most iconic symbol of this day has become the Brigid cross which symbolized her early medieval role as the Abbess of Kildare. At Imbolc, people would weave Brigid crosses which were equilateral crosses made with rushes that were then hung above doors and windows for protection. Some traditions also saw people making a bed for Brigid in their homes on the eve of Imbolc, leaving her food and drink as well.

Artistic impression of men, women and livestock passing between sacred bonfires at Beltane.

BELTANE

In the Central Highlands of Scotland bonfires, known as the Beltane fires, were formerly kindled with great ceremony on the first of May, and the traces of human sacrifices at them were particularly clean and unequivocal. The custom of lighting the bonfires lasted in various places far into the eighteenth century…

…Like the other public worship of the Druids, the Beltane feast seems to have been performed on hills or eminences. They thought it degrading to him whose temple is the universe, to suppose that he would dwell in any house made with hands. Their sacrifices were therefore offered in the open air…where they were presented with the grandest views of nature, and were nearest the seat of warmth and order…

…After kindling the bonfire with the tein-eigin [a ‘need fire’ started by friction] the company prepared their victuals. And as soon as they had finished their meal, they amused themselves a while in singing and dancing round the fire.

(Sir James Frazer, The Golden Bough, LXII)

May 1st, or ‘May Day’, marked the beginning of the summer season, and Beltane was the Celtic fire festival that celebrated this.

This festival celebrated the leading of the herds to their summer pastures and included rituals to protect and purify people and cattle by having them pass between sacred bonfires. The ashes from these fires were then gathered and spread over crops for protection, but also to encourage growth.

Feasting and drinking and visits to holy wells were also a big part of Beltane celebrations, as were sacred flowers such as hawthorn, primrose, rowan, gorse, hazel, and marsh marigold. Flowers were placed over doorways, on animals, and on food for protection, so as not to be stolen by the fairy folk.

Queen Guinevere’s Maying, by John Collier

In addition to being a springtime festival of fertility and fire, Beltane was a liminal festival like Samhain, when the veil between the world and the spirit world was thinnest.

Into the modern era, a May Queen and Green Man were appointed during the festivities, and May Poles decorated with flowers and ribbons – a supposed symbol of fertility – were erected and danced around by young men and women crowned with flowers.

LUGHNASADH

The festival of Lughnasadh, which began on August 1st, was a sacred festival to mark the beginning of the harvest season. It took place half way between the Summer Solstice and the Autumn Equinox.

Lughnasadh, also know as Gwyl Awst in Welsh, was named after the Celtic God, Lugh, a member of the Tuatha De Danann, who was a king and master craftsmen who is associated with oaths, truth, and law or rightful kingship.

In Celtic myth, Lugh founded the festival as funeral games for a goddess – perhaps the Goddess Tailtin – who died after clearing Ireland’s plains for agriculture.

The myth and festival commemorate a sort of mourning or ‘wake’ for the end of Summer. There are parallels to the Persephone myth here, in addition the Romans’ association of Lugh with the God Mercury.

They [the Celts] worship as their divinity, Mercury in particular, and have many images of him, and regard him as the inventor of all arts, they consider him the guide of their journeys and marches, and believe him to have great influence over the acquisition of gain and mercantile transactions.

(Gaius Julius Caesar, The Gallic War, Book VI, 17)

Illustration of Lugh’s magic spear by Harold Robert Millar

In Irish myth, Lugh is the father of the hero, Cuchulainn, in the Táin Bó Cúailnge. When his son is wounded in battle, Lugh appears to help heal him:

“A single man here cometh towards us now,” cried Laeg. “But what manner of man is he?” Cuchulainn asked. “Not hard to say,” Laeg made answer. “A great, well-favoured man, then. Broad, close-shorn hair upon him, and yellow and curly his back hair. A green mantle wrapped around him. A brooch of white silver in the mantle over his breast. A kirtle of silk fit for a king, with red interweaving of ruddy gold he wears trussed up on his fair skin and reaching down to his knees. A great one-edged sword in his hand. A black shield with hard rim of silvered bronze thereon. A five-barbed spear in his hand. A pronged bye-spear beside it. Marvellous, in sooth, the feats and the sport and the play that he makes. But him no one heeds, nor gives he heed to any one. No one shows him courtesy nor does he show courtesy to any one, like as if none saw him in the camp of the four grand provinces of Erin.” “In sooth, O fosterling,” answered Cuchulainn, “it is one of my friends of fairy kin that comes to take pity upon me, because they know the great distress wherein I am now all alone against the four grand provinces of Erin on the Plunder of the Kine of Cuailnge, killing a man on the ford each day and fifty each night, for the men of Erin grant me not fair fight nor the terms of single combat from noon of each day.”

Now in this, Cuchulainn spoke truth. When the young warrior was come up to Cuchulainn he bespoke him and condoled with him or the greatness of his toil and the length of time he had passed without sleep.”This is brave of thee, O Cuchulainn,” quoth he. “It is not much, at all,” replied Cuchulainn. “But I will bring thee help,” said the young warrior. “Who then art thou?” asked Cuchulainn. “Thy father from Faery am I, even Lug son of Ethliu.” “Yea, heavy are the bloody wounds upon me; let thy healing be speedy.” “Sleep then awhile, O Cuchulainn,” said the young warrior, “thy heavy fit of sleep by Ferta in Lerga till the end of three days and three nights and I will oppose the hosts during that time.” He examined each wound so that it became clean. Then he sang him the ‘men’s low strain’ till Cuchulainn fell asleep withal. It was then Lug recited the Spell-chant of Lug.

Accordingly Cuchulainn slept his heavy fit of sleep at ‘the Gravemound on the Slopes’ till the end of three days and three nights. And well he might sleep. Yet as great as was his sleep, even so great was his weariness. For from the Monday before Samhain even to the Wednesday after Spring-beginning, Cuchulainn slept not for all that space, except for a brief snatch after mid-day, leaning against his spear, and his head on his fist, and his fist clasping his spear, and his spear on his knee, but hewing and cutting, slaying and destroying four of the five grand provinces of Erin during that time.

Then it was that the warrior from Faery [Lugh] laid plants from the fairy-rath and healing herbs and put a healing charm into the cuts and stabs, into the sores and gaping wounds of Cuchulainn, so that Cuchulainn recovered during his sleep without ever perceiving it.

(Táin Bó Cúailnge, trans. Joseph Dunn)

“Cuchulain in Battle”, illustration by J. C. Leyendecker in T. W. Rolleston’s Myths & Legends of the Celtic Race, 1911

There were many rituals involved in the festivities of Lughnasadh. These included a feast, the sacrifice of a bull, ritual dances, visits to holy wells, and the offering of ‘first fruits’ to the gods, especially bilberries.

With its possible origins as funeral games founded by Lugh, the festivities, especially in the Middle Ages, also involved athletic competitions, horse racing, mock battles with sticks, music and storytelling, trading, dispute settlement, and even match-making. A truce was also declared during the time of Lughnasadh.

SAMHAIN

…it remains to give some account of the corresponding festival of Hallowe’en [Samhain], which announced the arrival of winter.

Of the two feasts [Beltane and Samhain] Hallowe’en was perhaps of old the more important, since the Celts would seem to have dated the beginning of the year from it rather than from Beltane…

…Another circumstance of great moment which points to the same conclusion is the association of the dead with Hallowe’en. Not only among the Celts but throughout Europe, Hallowe’en, the night which marks the transition from autumn to winter, seems to have been of old the time of year when the souls of the departed were supposed to revisit their old homes in order to warm themselves by the fire and to comfort themselves with the good cheer provided for them in the kitchen or the parlour by their affectionate kinsfolk…

…But it is not only the souls of the departed who are supposed to be hovering unseen on the day “when autumn to winter resigns the pale year.” Witches then speed on their errands of mischief, some sweeping through the air on besoms, others galloping along the roads on tabby-cats, which for that evening are turned into coal-black steeds. The fairies too are all let loose, and hobgoblins of every sort roam freely about.

(Sir James Frazer, The Golden Bough, LXII)

The last and perhaps most important of the seasonal Celtic festivals, as implied by Sir James Frazer above, is Samhain, the precursor of our modern Halloween and All Souls Day.

Glastonbury Tor – One of the gateways to Annwn, the Celtic Otherworld

Samhain features large in The Hearts of Heroes as it has in other books in the Eagles and Dragons series. It is the other liminal festival of the Celtic calendar when the veil between worlds is most thin and when, as Frazer points out, the dead come to walk among the living.

Samhain, which took place on October 31st and November 1st, was a time of danger and vulnerability, a boundary time when the old year died and the new year began. It was, scholars believe, the pagan Celtic New Year in ancient times.

It was at Samhain, the official beginning of winter, that the animals, especially cattle, were brought down from their summer pastures, some for slaughter and some for breeding.

Burial mounds were opened and people paid their respects to the dead who were able to come into their world from the Otherworld because the veil was thin. Contact with the Otherworld was common in Celtic religion and, for this reason, bonfires were lit on hilltops for protection and for cleansing.

Spirits and fairies were offered food and drink to ensure the survival of the people and their livestock over the coming winter. Sir James Frazer believed that Samhain and Beltane, especially of the seasonal festivals, where particular to herding communities who practiced ‘transhumance’, the seasonal moving of livestock from summer to winter pastures.

Apples and hazelnuts were important in Samhain celebrations as well. Apples were associated with the Celtic Otherworld and immortality, and apple peels were offered to the fires. Hazelnuts were associated with divine wisdom.

And, of course, mumming and guising were a tradition at Samhain in the early modern period, this tradition being a precursor of putting on costumes at Halloween.

In Ireland, Samhain was the time when the five provinces gathered at Tara for the great assemblies. In the Táin Bó Cúailnge, it was also when the invasion of Ulster began.

Perhaps the strongest pagan association with Samhain related to the dead is the Wild Hunt which was led by Gwyn ap Nudd, the Lord of Annwn, the Celtic Otherworld.

Artist impression of Gwyn ap Nudd hunting with his otherworldly hounds.

Gwyddneu:
For thou hast given me protection;
How warmly wert thou welcomed!
The hero of hosts, from what region thou comest?

[Gwyn ap Nudd is asked which region is he from. Gwyn does not answer directly]

Gwyn ap Nudd:
I come from battle and conflict
With a shield in my hand;
Many is the broken helmet pierced by the spears.

Gwyddneu:

I will address thee, exalted man,
With his shield in distress;
Brave man, what is thy descent?

[Gwyddneu (ruler of the sunken kingdom of Cantre’r Gwaelod) now asks about Gwyn ap Nudd’s family]

Gwyn ap Nudd:
Carngrwn [Round-hoofed] is my horse, the torment of battle,
Fairy am I called, Gwyn the son of Nudd,
The lover of Creudilad, the daughter of Llud.

Gwyddneu:
Since it is thou, Gwyn, an upright man,
From thee there is no concealing;
I also am Gwydneu Garanhir.

[Gwyn ap Nudd’s horse is becoming impatient and wants to return to Tawë in Annwn]

Gwyn ap Nudd:
He will not leave me in a parley with thee,
By the bridle, as is becoming;
But will hasten away to his home on the Tawë .

It is not the nearest Tawë I speak of to thee,
But the furthest Tawë
Eagle! I will cause the furious sea to ebb.

Polished is my ring, golden my saddle and bright
To my sadness
I saw a conflict before Caer Vandwy.

Before Caer Vandwy a host I saw,
Shields were shattered and ribs broken
Renowned and splendid was he who made the assault.

Gwyddneu:
Gwyn ab Nud, the hope of armies,
Sooner would legions fall before the hoofs
Of thy horses, than broken rushes to the ground.

Gwyn:
Handsome my dog and round-bodied,
And truly the best of dogs;
Dormach was he, which belonged to Maelgwn.

Gwyddneu:
Dormach with the ruddy nose! what a gazer
Thou art upon me! because I notice
Thy wanderings on Gwibir Vynyd.

Gwyn:
I have been in the place where was killed Gwendoleu,
The son of Ceidaw, the pillar of songs,
When the ravens screamed over blood.

I have been in the place where Bran was killed,
The son of Gweryd, of far-extending fame,
When the ravens of the battle-field screamed.

I have been where Llachau was slain,
The son of Arthur, extolled in songs,
When the ravens screamed over blood.

I have been where Meurig was killed,
The son of Carreian, of honourable fame,
When the ravens screamed over flesh.

I have been where Gwallawg was killed,
The son of Goholeth, the accomplished,
The resister of Lloegyr, the son of Lleynawg.

I have been where the soldiers of Prydain

[Britain] were slain,
From the East to the North;
I am alive, they in their graves!

I have been where the soldiers of Prydain

[Britain] were slain,
From the East to the South
I am alive, they in death!

(The Dialogue of Gwyn ap Nudd and Gwyddno Garanhir, The Black Book of Carmarthen XXXIII)

The Wild Hunt (1872) by Peter Nicolai Arbo

Mainly at Samhain, but also at other liminal times of the year, Gwyn ap Nudd, the Lord of Annwn, a sort of ‘King of the Fairies’, rode out on his magical horse with his white, otherworldly hounds with white-tipped ears to lead the dead in the Wild Hunt.

In later traditions, Gwyn ap Nudd was replaced by others, including King Arthur, as leader of the Wild Hunt at Samhain. In the 19th century, there were reports that locals had seen the king’s ghost riding with his hounds at South Cadbury Castle, in Somerset.

For fans of the Eagles and Dragons series, Gwyn ap Nudd, the Lord of Annwn, is a terrifying figure who has appeared before, and will appear again…

Just as our modern New Years is today, Samhain, the New Year’s festival of the ancient Celts, was at once both a sombre and joyous celebration. As a time of great spiritual energy in the world, when gods visited men, shapeshifters and spirits roamed the land, and all manner of supernatural beings crossed the veil between worlds, Samhain was one of the most important times of year on the Celtic calendar. It was a time to honour the gods and the dead, a time of fear, but also a time of gratitude.

Thank you for reading.

We hope you’ve enjoyed this article about the seasonal festivals of the ancient Celts.

Tune in for Part IV in The World of The Hearts of Heroes when we will be visiting one of the settings in the novel, ‘The Fairy Glen’ at Betws-y-Coed on the eastern edge of the ruggedly beautiful region of Snowdonia in Wales.

The Hearts of Heroes: A Novel of the Roman Empire is available ebook, paperback and deluxe hardcover editions from all major online retailers, independent bookstores, brick and mortar chains, and your local public library.

CLICK HERE to buy a copy and get ISBN#s for the edition of your choice.

If you are new to the Eagles and Dragons historical fantasy series, you can start your epic adventure with the award-winning, #1 bestselling prequel, A Dragon among the Eagles.

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The World of The Hearts of Heroes – Part II – Viroconium Cornoviorum: Civitas of Roman Britain

Salvete readers and history-lovers!

Welcome back to The World of The Hearts of Heroes in which we are taking a brief look at the research for the seventh book in the Eagles and Dragons series set in the Roman Empire.

In Part I, we looked at the life and work of the historian, Cassius Dio, who is the main source for the Severan period. If you missed that post, you can read it by clicking HERE.

In Part II, we’re going to be taking a brief look at one of the settings in The Hearts of Heroes, the Roman civitas of Viroconium Cornoviorum, at modern Wroxeter in England.

Roman ruins at Viroconium Cornoviorum; photograph 1859 (Wikimedia Commons)

Britain is a land that is packed with Roman remains from one end to the other. There are roads, villas, baths, walls, towers, fortlets and legionary fortresses and more. And there are cities. Well, the remains of them, anyway.

In Roman Britain there were, more or less, twenty civitates, the formal administrative districts with large settlements at their heart. These evolved into cities or towns.

Viroconium Cornoviorum was, at its height, the fourth largest civitas in the province of Britannia.

Viroconium Cornoviorum (Ordnance Survey Map of Roman Britain)

I first visited Viroconium (Wroxeter Roman City), which is about five miles from Shrewsbury, in the year 2000 when doing research on archaeological sites linked to the Arthurian period of sub-Roman Britain (more on that later). I was awed by the massive remains of the great bathhouse and fascinated by the reconstructed Roman townhouse as I strolled the grounds in a quiet and sunny green field along the River Severn.

It was much quieter then than it would have been at its peak. I knew for certain that, after the research for my dissertation, the site would someday end up in one of my novels.

But how did that Roman city come to be? Why was it so important? How was it that that silent, sun-kissed field I visited near the border of England and Wales had been one of the busiest places in Roman Britain?

Roads in Roman Britain (Wikimedia Commons) – with Viroconium shown

Viroconium Cornoviorum is located on a site overlooking a ford of the River Severn. It has good views in all directions. It was located at the western terminus of Wattling Street, one of the major roads of Roman Britain which ran all the way from the port of Dubris (Dover) to southeast. It was also on the route between the legionary fortresses of Deva (Chester) to the north, and Isca (Caerleon) and Glevum (Gloucester) to the south.

Strategically and economically, this was an important location.

Viroconium Cornoviorum was located in the lands of the Cornovii tribe whose tribal capital was at a nearby hillfort known as ‘The Wrekin’. It did not, however, begin as a city. Like other civitates in Roman Britain, it had military origins.

Viroconium was first established in the early years of the Roman conquest of Britain, which began in A.D. 43 under Emperor Claudius, as a frontier outpost guarding a crossing of the River Severn. As the invasion advanced northward, Viroconium became a forty-acre legionary fortress, built between A.D. 52-57.

The first legion to build, and be based at, Viroconium was the famed XIV Gemina Martia Victrix first established by Julius Caesar in 57 B.C. This legion took part in the invasion of Britain in A.D. 43, the assault on the Isle of Anglesey in A.D. 60, and played a major role in putting down the Boudiccan Revolt in A.D. 60-61.

When the XIVth legion’s work was finished, Viroconium was garrisoned by the XX Valeria Victrix legion which had also taken part in the invasion of Britain in A.D. 43. This legion was based there from about A.D. 59-90 before it moved to quarters at the fortress of Deva (Chester).

Viroconium remained under military rule from A.D. 47 until A.D. 90.

As frequently happened, a civilian settlement, a vicus, grew up around the fortress. This settlement included canabae, which literally means ‘booths’, and this referred to the stalls where soldiers could get food, drink, and sex.

Viroconium was starting to transition into a city, a hub of activity on the burgeoning road network that was spreading out across Britannia.

Plan of the Legionary Fortress at Viroconium c. A.D. 57-90 (from

As the front lines moved farther north, and Viroconium found itself safer, it transitioned smoothly from military to civilian life. The military defences were torn down when the army left, but the grid of the fortress remained. New roads were created and extended beyond the walls to encompass the growing city. The population fluctuated, and the city grew and, eventually, it became the fourth largest city in Roman Britain with the former via Principalis of the fortress becoming the main thoroughfare and heart of the new city.

It also became an important trading centre, largely due to its location at the intersection of two major routes, and grew to cover an area of about 180 acres.

But if Viroconium covered such a vast area of land, how is it that so little can be seen today? It appears more like a country setting than a former Roman metropolis.

Archaeologists have concluded that of the 180 acres occupied by Viroconium, only about 3 of those were covered by grand public buildings and, of those, about eighty percent has been excavated.

Stages of Viroconium Cornoviorum from c. A.D. 57 to c. A.D. 500 (from Wroxeter: Life & Death of A Roman City; White and Barker) – the bottom left (c. A.D. 150-500) is Viroconium in The Hearts of Heroes.

Viroconium Cornoviorum really experienced a boom when, in A.D. 122 Emperor Hadrian visited the city and ordered the building of a massive forum, as well as baths and a basilica. Some historians believe he showed an interest in Viroconium because it was the westernmost civitas of the Empire.

The structures which Hadrian had built in Viroconium brought increased trade and activity to the city with the new forum serving as the tribal administrative centre, judiciary, and market of Viroconium Cornoviorum. This was built on the site of the former principia, the legionary headquarters building.

There was also a long colonnade built along the main road, which was Watling Street, with the great bathhouse opposite on the other side of the street. This bathhouse is in addition to the earlier, unfinished bathhouse which lay beneath part of the new forum.

As far as civilian settlement, archaeologists have discovered the remains of two later insulae, apartment-like structures, as well as a mansio which was a sort of hotel and supply station along Watling street for off duty soldiers, couriers etc.

Artist Impression of the Forum of Viroconium Cornoviorum (English Heritage)

Civilian houses have also been found in Viroconium which have narrow entrances fronting onto main streets, but which are long. These are presumed to be the houses of craftsmen and artisans with stores or workshops on the ground floor (they discovered raw materials for their trades) and family living accommodation on the upper floor.

But it is the grand public buildings that really stand out at Viroconium, and this civic centre straddled either side of Watling street. It is no wonder that it became the fourth largest civitas in Britannia, for it had a forum, baths, a basilica, a water supply, roads, the colonnade for shelter, and public temples.

The bath and basilica complex, in addition to the regular rooms of a public bath, also had a 74 meter pool and palaestra, a large exercise ground.

Artist Impression of public baths and main thoroughfare (English Heritage)

The forum, which was the first major public building built at Viroconium Cornoviorum was very large with a courtyard that was 74×64 meters surrounded by a colonnade with shops and offices on one side, and the basilica on the other side. This was the commercial, administrative, and judicial centre of the city. The forum was also home to the sacellum (shrine), the curia (council chamber), aerarium (treasury), and the tabularium (records office).

In addition to the main forum, Viroconium also had a forum boarium, a livestock market. This would have meant that livestock farmers would have come from miles around to buy and sell their stock, contributing to the economic success of the city.

When it comes to the temples and shrines, in addition to some small ones to local deities, the remains that archaeologists have discovered indicate some small scale temples to Jupiter and to Venus or Epona. There may also have been some dedicated to Vesta and Mithras.

Artist Impression of Viroconium Cornoviorum at its peak, aerial view toward the southeast (English Heritage)

Prosperity and peace lasted for well over two hundred years for the people of Viroconium Cornoviorum once the Pax Romana had settled on Britannia. But, as history tells us, most things come to an end.

In A.D. 383 when Magnus Maximus set out for Gaul with his troops to make his play for the imperial throne, the Cornovii, and Viroconium itself, may have come under attack by Picts from the north or the Irish from across the sea. Saxon invasions had also begun to the southeast until finally, in A.D. 410, Emperor Honorius supposedly wrote to the Britons to tell them to see to their own defences. Rome was leaving.

This was the start of the sub-Roman period in Britain, also commonly referred to as the ‘Dark Ages’.

The Pillar of Eliseg, Denbighshire, Wales

It was at this time that archaeology shows a strengthening of Viroconium’s defences, and an increased military presence. Viroconium Cornoviorum transitioned into the capitol of the Kingdom of Powys after Rome’s departure.

The basilica and parts of the former baths were still in use, with simpler wattle constructions built on top. There were, it is believed, some public buildings, but the grandest structure appears to have been a private residence or palace built into the former Roman structures.

Enter the ‘Arthurian’ connection.

This private residence or palace at Viroconium, once the fourth largest city in Roman Britain, was built and lived in by the new ‘tyrant’ or ruler of Powys. One very strong theory is that this man was none other than the Vortigern of Arthurian legend whose name is inscribed on the Pillar of Eliseg, just across the border in Wales.

The Pillar of Eliseg, ancient monument to the Kings of Powys, references both the Roman past and Vortigern by name:

Side by side translation of the inscription on the Pillar of Eliseg (Wikimedia Commons)

This last bit of history from Viroconium’s legendary past is what brought me to the site, but little did I know that it opened the door to an understanding of one of the greatest cities of Roman Britain.

In studying Rome, and sites like Viroconium Cornoviorum, it strikes me how fleeting the greatness of cities and civilizations can be, how longevity cannot be taken for granted. That is one of the tragic lessons the Roman Empire has to teach us.

A once great city that was filled with life and vitality, that experienced economic prosperity, and had a thriving population that enjoyed over two hundred years of peace can, in the end, be transformed back into a quiet green field beside a river.

Carpe Diem, folks. Carpe Diem.

Thank you for reading.

If you are interested in reading more about the history and archaeology of Viroconium, I highly recommend the book Wroxeter: Life & Death of a Roman City by Roger White and Philip Barker. You can get a copy of that book by CLICKING HERE.

The Hearts of Heroes: A Novel of the Roman Empire is available ebook, paperback and deluxe hardcover editions from all major online retailers, independent bookstores, brick and mortar chains, and your local public library.

CLICK HERE to buy a copy and get ISBN#s for the edition of your choice.

If you are new to the Eagles and Dragons historical fantasy series, you can start your epic adventure with the award-winning, #1 bestselling prequel, A Dragon among the Eagles.

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NEW VIDEO TOUR! – The Sanctuary of Asklepios: A Meditative Walk Through the Archaeological Site at Ancient Epidaurus

Greetings History-Lovers!

Today, Eagles and Dragons Publishing is pleased to announce the release of a new video tour on our YouTube and Rumble channels.

The Sanctuary of Asklepios lies on the Argolid plain, with Mt. Arachnaio and Mr. Titthion to the north. The former was said to have been a home of Zeus and Hera, and the latter, whose gentle slopes lead down to the plain, was said to have been where Asklepios was born.

To the south of the sanctuary is Mt. Kynortion, where there was a shrine to Apollo, Asklepios’ father. Farther to the south are the wooded slopes of Mt. Koryphaia, where the goddess Artemis is said to have wandered. 

This is a land of myth and legend, a world of peace and healing, green and mild, dotted with springs. The sanctuary was actually called ‘the Sacred Grove’.

Asklepios, as a god of healing, was worshiped at Epidaurus from the 5th century B.C. to the 4th century A.D. According to archaeologists, it was the sick who turned to Asklepios, people who had lost all hope of recovery – the blind, the lame, the paralyzed, the dumb, the wounded, the sterile – all of them wanting a miracle.

We hope you enjoy this calming, meditative journey through the ruins of the Sanctuary of Asklepios at Ancient Epidaurus!

After the video, be sure to check out our popular articles on Ancient Epidaurus at the links below:

The Ancient Theatre of Epidaurus

Epidaurus: Place of Dreams and Healing

Also…

Don’t forget to check out our video tour of the Ancient Theatre of Epidaurus.

Lastly…

If you are planning on visiting Ancient Epidaurus, you can get amazing, discounted deals on tours and tickets with our travel partners at Viator by CLICKING HERE.

*If you love Greek Mythology and Ancient History, then be sure to check out the Eagles and Dragons Publishing AGORA on Etsy at the link below for a wide range of history-related books, gifts, clothing, housewares and more. CLICK HERE to shop now.

More video tours are coming soon, so be sure to SUBSCRIBE on YouTube or Rumble so you don’t miss any.

Thank you for watching!

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The Panathenaic Stadium – A Tour of the Ancient Monument

Greetings Readers and History-Lovers!

When it comes to the world of Ancient Greece, the subjects we find most interesting are religious festivals and sacred athletic competitions such as the Olympic Games. These events, in a way, portray the ancient world in microcosm. ‘War minus the shooting’, as George Orwell famously said of ancient sport.

When it came to ancient Athens, the greatest event on the Attic calendar was, no doubt, the Panathenaic Festival in honour of the city’s patron goddess, Athena. To read all about the Panathenaic Festival, CLICK HERE.

The celebrations that took place during the Great Panathenaea of Athens took place all over the city at different venues, and the venue where the athletic competitions took place was the Panathenaic Stadium, or ‘Kallimarmaro’ as it is also known, ‘Nice Marble’.

In this article, we’re going to take a brief look at the history of the stadium and, at the end, take a full video walking tour of the site.

This magnificent stadium in the heart of Athens, on the edge of the modern neighbourhood of Pangrati, is located in what was a small valley between the sacred hills of Agras and Ardittos where there were also temples to the Goddess Tyche, and to Artemis Agrotera.

Originally, this was the site of a horse racing course from the 6th century B.C., but during the archonship of Lykourgos in the 4th century B.C. a new stadium was constructed as part of a string of public works projects carried out at that time.

The new stadium, which had earthen embankments where spectators sat to watch the games, was used for the first time during the celebration of the Greater Panathenaea of 330/329 B.C.

Panathenaic amphora depicting a synoris, or two-horse chariot

A few hundred years later, during the reign of the Roman Emperor Hadrian (A.D. 117-138), who was a great philhellene, the orator and philanthropist, Herodes Atticus, sponsored the renovation and redesign of the stadium. It was at that time that the stadium was completely rebuilt in white, Pentelic marble from the quarries outside the city.

A vaulted passage through which athletes entered the stadium was also built at this time, and the entire stadium was adorned with statuary.

This renovated, permanent Panathenaic Stadium could seat well over 50,000 spectators. It was unrivalled in the ancient world.

Reconstruction work on the ancient stadium in 1895

Sadly, when the Christian Roman emperors banned all pagan festivals, including the Panathenaea, the stadium fell into a state of disrepair that worsened during the Ottoman occupation of Greece from 1456 to 1821.

Thankfully, in the 1870s, a movement began to revive the idea of the Olympic Games and events were organized in the ruins of the Panathenaic Stadium. In 1896, two years after Pierre de Coubertin’s International Olympic Conference in Paris, the first modern Olympic Games were held in the newly reconstructed Panathenaic Stadium in Athens.

The Olympic Games were back, and new life was pumped into the long-dormant stadium.

First day of the modern Olympic Games held in 1896 in Athens at the Panathenaic Stadium

Since then, the Panathenaic Stadium has hosted numerous musical and athletic events and served as a venue for the marathon (the finish line) and archery events in the highly successful 2004 Athens Olympic Games.

Today, this magnificent stadium is one of the most recognizable and beloved monuments of Ancient Greece and the city of Athens.

In the summer of 2024, on a scorching day in July when the temperatures soared to 45 degrees Celsius, we took our cameras back to the Panathenaic Stadium one morning to film a walking tour of the site.

We’re thrilled to be able to present this video to you here.

We hope that you enjoy walking around the Panathenaic Stadium with us.

Thank you for reading, and thank you for watching.

The Great Panathenaea of Athens is the central event in An Altar of Indignities, Book II in our multi award-winning series, The Etrurian Players.

For more information about archaeological sites, ancient history, and Greek Mythology, be sure to visit the Article Archive.

If you are interested in visiting Athens, Greece, and are looking for discounts on airfare, accommodation, and personal tours of the archaeological sites, be sure to visit our Ancient World Travel page at the link below to take advantage of the deals we have curated for our followers:

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To get discounted tickets (just for our subscribers!) to archaeological sites like the Panathenaic Stadium, museums and other amazing tours and experiences in Athens, click the links below:

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Lastly, if you are a fan of Ancient Greece, Greek Mythology, or the history of the Roman Empire, be sure to check out Eagles and Dragons Publishing’s range of unique clothing, art, housewares and more in the AGORA on Amazon. CLICK HERE to shop now.

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Hadrian’s Library – A Tour of the Archaeological Site in Athens

Greetings Readers and History-Lovers!

In this article we’re going to be taking a brief look at one of the great monuments of Roman Athens: Hadrian’s Library

This magnificent centre of learning at the heart of Roman Athens was, arguably, the greatest gift given to the city by Emperor Hadrian, a great philhellene (lover of all things Greek!)

We will discuss what the ‘library’ structure entailed (hint, hint! – it was much more than a library), and if you read until the end there is a special surprise in the form of a new release!

Emperor Hadrian

Roman Athens was a rich and vibrant place in its day with many monuments added to that already great city, including the Roman Agora and the Odeon of Herodes Atticus.

But the Library of Hadrian was more than a functional structure for the city. It was a symbol Athens’ great culture and tradition of learning, as well as a symbol of the respect and esteem in which Emperor Hadrian held the city.

Hadrian had the library built on his third visit to Athens in A.D. 132. It was located just north of the Roman Agora of Athens which had been built one-hundred and fifty years before.

The western facade with the propylon, the monumental entrance to the library (Wikimedia Commons)

The library was accessed by way of a grand, monumental entrance, or propylon, on the west side which was flanked by Corinthian columns of pink marble and green rock, each topped by a statue.

The entire complex of Hadrian’s Library was approximately 122 x 82 meters and was comprised of a high-walled enclosure with a colonnaded courtyard garden, or peristylium, at the centre of which was a large, rectangular pool, possibly surrounded by trees and benches where people could sit and read or talk.

On the north and south sides of the courtyard were two exedrae (semi-circular rooms) and one oikos (a rectangular room) which were open to the gardens and which could be used for teaching, relaxation or study.

The bibliostasion (the library) at the eastern end of the complex.

At the back of the complex, on the western side, was the bibliostasion, the library itself where the papyrus scrolls were safely kept in cedar cabinets with shelves known as armaria. 

The bibliostasion was two storeys high and had an ornate marble floor, cedar roof, and marble columns with a statue of Emperor Hadrian in a large niche in the middle.

The library held everything from histories and philological texts, to legal and state documents, and philosophical and mathematical treatises.

On either side of the bibliostasion there were also two lecture halls, or auditoria, with seating, and two large reading rooms.

Plan of Hadrian’s Library

Hadrian’s Library was, no doubt, an oasis of learning in the heart of Athens, a quiet place to study and learn, away from the raucous atmosphere of the Roman Agora which lay next door, immediately to the south.

3D model recreation of Hadrian’s Library beside the Roman Agora of Athens (courtesy of AncientAthens3D.com)

When we visited the site, it was on a scorching day in July. That morning, we got an early start but even so, by the time we arrived at the archaeological site, the temperature was already pushing forty degrees Celsius.

However, we quickly forgot about the heat as we walked through the ruins of this once-great library of Athens, making our way over the ruins of the western wall, beside the propylon, and on into the courtyard where the gardens and pool once formed a quiet place of repose and study.

At the far end, the ruins of the bibliostasion rose up before us and we imagined the armaria filled with ancient texts, many of which are lost to time.

3D model recreation of the bibliostasion with two levels of armaria (courtesy of AncientAthens3D.com)

Sadly, Hadrian’s Library did not stand for very long. In A.D. 267, it was badly damaged in the Herulian invasion of the city which laid waste to so many of Athens’ great monuments.

It was eventually repaired by the Praefectus of Illyricum, Herculius, in the early 5th century A.D., at which time a Christian church was erected where the decorative pool had been.

The library, however, would never be the same.

Inscription found onsite which mentions Emperor Hadrian

And now for the new release we mentioned earlier!

If you are unable to visit Hadrian’s Library for yourself, you can now take a tour of the archaeological site with us in our new video Hadrian’s Library – A Tour of the Archaeological Site in Athens.

You can watch this on the Eagles and Dragons Publishing YouTube and Rumble channels, or by clicking below.

We hope you enjoy the tour!

The Library of Hadrian is one of the settings in An Altar of Indignities, Book II in our multi award-winning series, The Etrurian Players.

For more information about this site and others, ancient history, and Greek Mythology, be sure to visit the Article Archive.

If you are interested in visiting Athens, Greece, and are looking for discounts on airfare, accommodation, and personal tours of the archaeological sites, be sure to visit our Ancient World Travel page by CLICKING HERE to take advantage of the deals we have curated for our followers.

To get discounted tickets (just for our subscribers!) to archaeological sites, museums and other amazing tours and experiences in Athens, click the links below:

Tiquets: https://tiqets.tpx.lt/yWNAK6g3

Viator: https://viator.tpx.lt/HY7lVjgZ

Lastly, if you’re a fan of Ancient Greece, Greek Mythology, or the history of the Roman Empire, be sure to check out Eagles and Dragons Publishing’s range of unique clothing, art, housewares and more in the AGORA on Amazon. CLICK HERE to shop now!

Thank you for reading!

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NEW VIDEO TOUR! – Epidaurus: A Tour of the Ancient Theatre

Greetings History-Lovers!

Today, Eagles and Dragons Publishing is pleased to announce the release of a new video tour on our YouTube and Rumble channels.

One of our favourite archaeological sites to visit when we are in the Peloponnese in Greece is the Ancient Theatre of Epidaurus.

Not only is this ancient theatre beautiful to behold, it is also a marvel of ancient engineering with amazing acoustics and a seating capacity of up to 14,000 spectators!

It was built during the 4th century B.C. by the architect Polykleitos and is still in use today for theatrical performances.

If you can’t manage a trip to this amazing site, this video tour is the next best thing.

We hope you enjoy the tour…

Be sure to check out the following articles on Ancient Epidaurus and Drama and Theatres in Ancient Greece by clicking on the titles below:

The Ancient Theatre of Epidaurus

Epidaurus: A Place of Dreams and Healing

Drama and Theatres in Ancient Athens

Also…

If you are planning on visiting the ancient theatre of Epidaurus, you can get amazing, discounted deals on tours and tickets with our travel partners at Viator at the following link:

https://viator.tp.st/7KGOTAj5 

 

Lastly…

If you love ancient theatre and ancient history, then be sure to check out our Ancient Theatre Collection and more on Eagles and Dragons Publishing’s AGORA on Amazon by clicking the headings below:

 Ancient Theatre Collection

Ancient History and Mythology Merchandise

Thank you for watching, and thank you for reading!

 

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The World of An Altar of Indignities – Part X – The Odeon of Herodes Atticus

Greetings Readers and History-Lovers!

Welcome back to The World of An Altar of Indignities, the blog series in which we’re taking a look at some of the research that went into our latest novel set in the Roman Empire.

If you missed Part IX on Spirits in Roman Religion, you can read that by CLICKING HERE.

In Part X, we’re going to take a brief look at one of the climactic settings in An Altar of Indignities: the Odeon of Herodes Atticus.

We hope you enjoy…

This is unrivalled in size and magnificence, and was built by Herodes, an Athenian, in memory of his dead wife.

(Pausanias, Description of Greece, 7.20)

When writing historical fiction, bringing the setting of the time period and locations to life is everything. It anchors the reader in the chosen period and transports them.

Over the course of An Altar of Indignities, which is set in early third century Roman Athens, there have been many locations that have had a part to play, including the Parthenon, the Roman Agora, the Temple of Artemis Agrotera and several more. However, one could say that the location with the most important role in our dramatic and romantic comedy of ancient Rome and Athens is the Odeon of Herodes Atticus.

The Odeon of Herodes Atticus (c. 1870)

This theatre, the youngest of ancient Athens, is where The Etrurian Players are set to undertake their exciting, climactic performance before the Athenian people at the end of the Panathenaic Games. It is a place of haunting realization and transformation, a place of entertainment and of comic chaos.

For our Etrurian theatre troupe, the Odeon of Herodes Atticus is the setting of one of their most difficult trials to date…

So… What was this theatrical structure of ancient Athens, and how did it differ from the other theatres in the city?

The Odeon of Herodes Atticus was a covered theatre located on the southwestern slope of the Acropolis of Athens. Herodes Atticus, the wealthy and well-connected Greek who lavished gifts on Athens as well as other places across the Roman Empire, built the odeon in honour of his recently deceased wife, Annia Regilla, in 161 C.E. If you missed the article about Herodes Atticus, you can read that by CLICKING HERE.

While the Romans did perform plays and put on theatrical productions in odea, they were primarily used for musical performances and poetry recitations.

The Odeon of Herodes Atticus was the third odeon built in Athens, the previous two being the Odeon of Pericles, built directly beside the Theatre of Dionysus, and the Odeon of Agrippa, which was built in the middle of the ancient Agora.

This impressive Roman odeon seated 5000 spectators in a marble, semi-circular cavea that had thirty-two rows of seats divided into two horizontal sections with a gallery at the top. The marble orchestra before the raised stage, or pulpitum, was also a semi-circle. The cavea curved around this to the edges of the stage, enveloping the orchestra. Stairs at the sides of the pulpitum led to the upper level of the cavea. High above, the ceiling of the odeon was constructed of cedar from Lebanon and roofed with tiles.

Recreation of the Scaena Frons of the Odeon of Herodes Atticus (from Ancient Greece: the famous monuments Past and Present – by Muses Publications)

Like most Roman theatres, the Odeon of Herodes Atticus had an elaborate scaena frons that was part of the twenty-eight meter high stage house that faced the audience and which was part of the scene. It was made up of three levels, two of which survive to this day. On the bottom level of the scaena frons, there were columns and statues in niches, and three doorways which could serve as part of the set for performances and from which the musicians and actors could come and go. The first two storeys were faced with marble while the third storey was dressed stone.

On the second and third storeys of the scaena frons, there were aspidal (arched) openings with statues flanked by pilasters. Behind these there was a gallery, or metaskenio, from where other performers could participate or look on. The second and third storeys of the scaena frons were reached by way of staircases that flanked the pulpitum.

Though smaller than other theatres around the Roman Empire and the Greek world, this odeon was an impressive addition to the polis where theatre was born.

At the back of the scaena frons of the odeon was a closed stage-house or basilica where set pieces could be kept and performers could prepare before taking to the stage. Today, this is visible as one approaches the Odeon of Herodes Atticus from the pedestrian street of Dionysiou Areopagitou. It is believed that this part of the odeon may have had a mosaic floor.

The Odeon of Herodes Atticus was a part of a sort of ancient theatre district on the southern slope of the Acropolis. It was connected to the great, open-air theatre and sanctuary of Dionysus by a long, covered stoa built by Eumenes II, King of Pergamon, around 160 B.C.E. This stoa was 163 meters long and provided shelter for theatre goers up until the third century C.E. Nearby, there were also fountains and monuments to past theatrical performers and patrons of Athens such as Thrasyllos and Nikias. In addition to an Asklepion (a healing sanctuary) behind the Stoa of Eumenes, there were fountains and a sanctuary of the Nymph.

Plan of the southern slope of the Acropolis of Athens (from South Slope of the Acropolis – Publication of the Association of Friends of the Acropolis) – labels added

The Odeon of Herodes Atticus was certainly a magnificent addition to the Goddess Athena’s city.

Sadly, like the stoa and so many other monuments of beauty and art in Athens, the Odeon of Herodes Atticus was gravely damaged during the Herulian invasion of the city in 267 C.E., a little over one hundred years after its completion.

Thankfully, between 1950 and 1961, the seating of the cavea was restored using Pentelic marble, and the orchestra floor was restored with marble from Mount Hymettus.

Modern performance during the Athens Epidaurus Festival

As a result, the Odeon of Herodes Atticus lives on as it is the primary venue for the modern Athens Epidaurus Festival which runs from May to October every year, and which has featured such world-renowned artists as Maria Callas, Luciano Pavarotti, Andrea Boccelli, Nana Mouskouri, Vangelis, Frank Sinatra and many others.

If you are ever in Athens (or Epidaurus!) during the festival, try and get tickets to one of the performances in this ancient odeon for an experience beneath the timeless stars that you will never forget.

Thank you for reading.

An Altar of Indignities: A Dramatic and Romantic Comedy of Ancient Rome and Athens is available ebook, paperback and deluxe hardcover editions from all major online retailers, independent bookstores, brick and mortar chains, and your local public library.

CLICK HERE to buy a copy and get ISBN#s for the edition of your choice.

 

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The World of An Altar of Indignities – Part VI – The Hill of Ardittos and the Temple of Artemis Agrotera

Happy New Year, and welcome back to The World of An Altar of Indignities, the blog series in which we look at some of the research that went into our latest novel set in the Roman Empire.

If you missed Part V on the Roman Agora of Athens, you can read that by CLICKING HERE.

In Part VI, we’re going to be exploring two ancient sites that are not really known to the average tourist but which were important in the world of ancient Athens: the Hill of Ardittos, and the Temple of Artemis Agrotera.

We hope you find it interesting…

In deciding to set An Altar of Indignities in Athens, I came to discover a history of the neighbourhood of Pangrati which I had not been aware of. Our family home is located in Pangrati, where I had been coming for over twenty-five years, and yet it was the research for this dramatic and romantic comedy of ancient Rome and Athens that helped me to truly discover its ancient past.

Pangrati is located on the lower slopes of Mount Hymettos, just the other side of the sacred Ilissos river which now runs from the shadow of the Temple of Olympian Zeus and then curves around beneath the modern streets of Ardittou and Vasileos Konstantinou. It is a neighbourhood of local families who have inhabited it for generations, and who now share their streets with artists and immigrants. The streets are lined with apartment blocks where people and drying laundry hang over the edges of run-down balconies watching the world go by and listening to the chorus coming from the weekly farmer’s markets, or laiki as they are called.

To me, however, beneath the grubby veneer of graffiti, trash, and construction dust, I can now see the rich and wondrous history of this ancient neighbourhood. And I don’t mean the beautiful curves of the massive Panathenaic stadium at Pangrati’s edge, first built by Lycurgus in 339 B.C.E, which we mentioned in Part III of this blog series.

Rather, I mean the mysterious hills of Agras and Ardittos that flank the stadium in the Ilissos river valley, particularly, the Hill of Ardittos, and the Temple of Artemis Agrotera beside it.

These are the two sites we will focus on.

The Panathenaic Stadium at the edge of Pangrati, with the Hill of Ardittos on the right

The hill of Ardittos in Athens lies directly beside the Panathenaic Stadium, to your right as you stand before the ancient athletic monument, between Archimidous and Arditou streets. It is about two-hundred and thirty-five meters high and can only really be accessed from behind the stadium at the entrance on Archimidous street.

The Hill of Ardittos is a small green oasis in the middle of the chaotic city, and it is often overlooked, despite its guarded stance beside the Panathenaic Stadium. Its pathways and slopes are dotted with massive agave plants and eucalyptus, cacti, pine, olive, almond, cypress and carob trees where crows – the birds of Apollo – keep a watchful eye.

Admittedly, I had walked by the hill many times over the years, simply noting its ancient slopes, the gnarled vegetation and the rocks protruding from beneath the soil. To be sure, the fence around it dissuaded me before, even as I walked by the hill on my way to the Temple of Olympian Zeus and the neighbourhood around the Acropolis, the Plaka.

Ardittos is a community park where locals jog, walk their dogs, workout, make-out, sneak a peek of paid events in the stadium, or just hold to a little peace at the heart of the city.

If you can find your way there through the steep and winding roads and pathways of Pangrati, you are rewarded with magnificent views of the stadium, the Acropolis, and the Olympeion, the Temple of Olympian Zeus.

View of the Acropolis from the Hill of Ardittos (photo source: ekathimerini.com – Irene Anastasiadis)

Apparently, Ardittos was named after a hero of ancient Athens named, Arditis. In ancient times, there were several sanctuaries in the vicinity, along the shores of the Ilissos, including sanctuaries of the Nine Muses, Pan, and Herakles.

But the Hill of Ardittos itself was also a religious and legal centre. It is believed that there were temples to Pan, Hecate, and Hera on or near the hill, but the remains that are visible today are thought to belong to the Temple of Tyche, the Goddess of Luck, who was a daughter of the Titans, Oceanus and Tethys.

Remains of the Temple of Tyche on the Hill of Ardittos (Wikimedia Commons)

Archaeologists and historians believe it possible that the Temple of Tyche on Ardittos was the site of offerings to Demeter and Persephone during the lesser Eleusinian Mysteries when piglets were offered, purified in the Ilissos River beforehand. There were also rites carried out here in honour of Dionysos during the festival of the Anthesteria.

There is no doubt that the Hill of Ardittos holds many mysteries, including a tradition that Herodes Atticus, that great Greco-Roman patron of the city, may even have been buried on it.

As I walk around Pangrati, a part of me doesn’t see the broken marble sidewalks or the apartment buildings that jut up to provide shade from the hot Athenian sun. Rather, I imagine and see the wooded lower slopes of Hymettos thick with pine and cypress, bees flitting about wild thyme, and boar crashing through the scrub while ancient Athenians made their offerings, or herded their goats and sheep on the mountainside.

It must have been beautiful and calm.

Artemis – The Huntress

According to legend, it was not only the Athenians who roamed the wooded slopes of Ardittos, Agras, and Hymettos.

This was also said to be the domain of Artemis Agrotera, the Huntress.

Just the other side of the Hill of Ardittos, there is another site that provides one of the settings for An Altar of Indignities, and that is the Temple of Artemis Agrotera.

Pausanias described the setting in the second century C.E:

The rivers that flow through Athenian territory are the Ilissos and its tributary the Eridanus, whose name is the same as that of the Celtic river. This Ilissos is the river by which Oreithyia was playing when, according to the story, she was carried off by the North Wind. With Oreithyia he lived in wedlock, and because of the tie between him and the Athenians he helped them by destroying most of the foreigners’ warships. The Athenians hold that the Ilissos is sacred to other deities as well, and on its bank is an altar of the Ilissian Muses. The place too is pointed out where the Peloponnesians killed Codrus, son of Melanthus and king of Athens.

Across the Ilissos is a district called Agrae and there is a temple of Artemis Agrotera (the Huntress). They say that Artemis first hunted here when she came from Delos, and for this reason the statue carries a bow. A marvel to the eyes, though not so impressive to hear of, is a race-course of white marble, the size of which can best be estimated from the fact that beginning in a crescent on the heights above the Ilissos it descends in two straight lines to the river bank. This was built by Herodes [Herodes Atticus], an Athenian, and the greater part of the Pentelic quarry was exhausted in its construction.

(Pausanias; Description of Greece, 1.19)

Antiquarian plate of facade of the Temple of Artemis Agrotera (by Stuart and Revett)

When we went in search of the Temple of Artemis Agrotera, it was on a hot Athenian morning when the temperature had already reached a blistering 45 degrees Celsius. Our path took us down the hill from Pangrati to the back of the Panathenaic Stadium, along Archimidous street, and then past the entrance to the Hill of Ardittos. We sweat our way up and down the steep side streets of the ancient district of Agrae until, arriving at Ardittou street, we found a lot where no apartment blocks stood.

We had arrived at the site of the Temple of Artemis Agrotera to find this:

Modern site of the Temple of Artemis Agrotera wit the Acropolis in the background

It was indeed a shock to behold this, but before we go any further, here is bit of history of the once-graceful temple that stood on this site…

The Temple of Artemis Agrotera was built between 435-430 B.C.E above the left or southern bank of the Ilissos river. But the temple was not only built here because this wood was thought to be the goddess’ first hunting ground.

Apparently, before the great Battle of Marathon in 490 B.C.E, when the Athenians crushed a more numerous invading Persian force, the Athenians made a vow to Artemis Agrotera – they were going on the hunt, after all! – that a goat would be sacrificed to her for every enemy killed in battle. The Athenians slew 6,400 Persian invaders.

Needless to say, the Athenians could not find enough goats to fulfill their vow to the goddess, but 500 goats were offered every year on the anniversary of the battle in early September.

For when the Persians and their followers came with a vast array to blot Athens out of existence, the Athenians dared, unaided, to withstand them, and won the victory. And while they had vowed to Artemis that for every man they might slay of the enemy they would sacrifice a goat to the goddess, they were unable to find goats enough; so they resolved to offer five hundred every year, and this sacrifice they are paying even to this day. 

(Xenophon, Anabasis, 3.2)

Antiquarian plate of the plan of the Temple of Artemis Agrotera (by Stuart and Revett)

The temple to honour Artemis Agrotera, who had helped the Athenians, was built some years later by Callicrates, who also designed the Temple of Athena Nike on the Acropolis, and for which it provided the precedent.

There were no precise, ancient descriptions of the temple of Artemis Agrotera. Thankfully, in the 1750s, two curious architects by the names of James Stuart and Nicholas Revett, went in search of the temple and recorded the details of what they saw, sketching what they could. Thanks to them, we know what the temple looked like.

Antiquarian plate of Temple of Artemis Agrotera architectural details (by Stuart and Revett)

On the southern bank of the Ilissos… stands a little Ionic temple, the mouldings of which differ much from all the examples of that order, hitherto published; their forms are extremely simple, but withal so elegant, and the whole is so well executed, that it may doubtless be reckoned among those works of antiquity which best deserve our attention.

(Stuart and Revett, The Antiquities of Athens, Volume l, 1762, Chapter 2, Page 7)

From Revett and Stuart’s records, it was a simple temple with four Ionic columns on the front porch, or tetrastyle, as well as four at the back. It had a deep pronaos, and a square cella, or inner sanctum, something that is thought to be unique to this temple. There was also a continuous frieze about the temple, fragments of which are now in the Staatliche Museum in Berlin.

There was also a temple precinct created by a low retaining wall, remains of which, along with parts of the temple foundations, are visible on-site today.

As happened with many ancient temples, the Temple of Artemis Agrotera was converted into a Christian basilica in the 5th century C.E. Sadly, it was later destroyed for building materials by the Ottomans when they occupied Athens.

Gouache painting of the Temple of Artemis Agrotera’s ruins (by Stuart)

As you stand on the site today, it is difficult to imagine the temple as it once was, on the edge of the wood, offerings crowding its altars, inside and out. Where the sacred Ilissos once flowed, sparkling in the Athenian sun, cars and mopeds now shake the ground. But you can still stand at the edge of the ancient wall of the temple precinct and gaze across the modern layer of the city to see the Temple of Olympian Zeus with the soaring beacon of the Acropolis beyond. What a site it must have been!

3D recreation of the Temple of Artemis Agrotera with the Temple of Olympian Zeus and the Acropolis in the background (Dimitris Tsalkanis & Chrysanthos Kanellopoulos – www.AncientAthens3d.com)

When you are finished reading this article, be sure to watch our video tour of this archaeological site!

In researching and writing An Altar of Indignities, I came to discover the Hill of Ardittos and the Temple of Artemis Agrotera, and their importance in the mythology and history of the landscape of ancient Athens. Both became settings in the book and the story is the richer for it.

When I make my way around Athens today, I don’t follow the names of streets, but rather use the city’s ancient sites as my markers to guide me to where I want to go. Now, in addition to the stadium, I also have the Hill of Ardittos and the Temple of Artemis Agrotera to guide me on my way.

Thank you for reading.

An Altar of Indignities is now available in ebook, paperback and deluxe hardcover edition from all major online retailers, independent bookstores, brick and mortal chains, and your local public library.

CLICK HERE to buy a copy and get ISBN#s information for the edition of your choice.

 

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